Using the GPS for People Tracking
Until recently, tracking people with Global Positioning System technology required purchasing expensive hardware and software. Now, complete solutions are available through cellular service providers. Here is background info and a few options for keeping up with the whereabouts of your family, friends and employees.
GPS-Enabled Cell Phones
The increased demand for enhanced 911 (e911) emergency calling capabilities, stimulated by the events of 11 September 2001, has pushed forward GPS tracking technology in cell phones. At the end of 2005, all cell phone carriers were required to provide the ability to trace cell phone calls to a location within 100 meters or less.
To comply with FCC requirements, cell phone carriers decided to integrate GPS technology into cell phone handsets, rather than overhaul the tower network. However the GPS in most cell phones are not like those in your handy GPS receiver that you take hiking. Most cell phones do not allow the user direct access to the GPS data, accurate location determination requires the assistance of the wireless network, and the GPS data is transmitted only if a 911 emergency call is made
.
So, in general, you can not track someone using their cell phone, unless the person you want to track has the right kind of cell phone, connected to the right network, with the right service.
Wireless Networks
Here in the United States, the wireless networks used for GPS tracking are primarily those operated by cell phone carriers. It is not likely that you as an individual will negotiate network access with a carrier. It is more likely that you will select a solution including a cell phone provisioned to communicate in a certain way on a specific wireless network. List below are a some carriers I recomend for use with GPS cell phones and services.
T-Mobile / Cingular / AT&T – The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications as adopted by these carriers represents the network with the largest coverage footprint. Roaming agreements between these carriers provide end users with service throughout the country. GSM is also the prominent cellular network abroad.
Sprint / Nextel, not so much because of coverage, but because of their emphasis on data. Nextel has created their own data formats and communication protocols for high bandwidth mobile electronics applications. This company, who gave new meaning to the term “walkie-talkie”, provides the most flexibility for the communication of GPS data between cell phones and location-based service providers. Recent co-operation between Sprint and Nextel has increased this network's footprint.
GPS Cell Phones:
Motorolla iDEN, Boost Mobile, Blackberry phones operate on the Nextel network.
Disney Mobile offers Pantech DM-P100 and LG DM-L200 operating on the Sprint Network
Wherify Wireless offers its own "Wherifone" operating on the GSM network.
Location-Based Services (LBS)
LBS providers have agreements with the wireless network carriers to receive data from a cell phone and make it accessible to you via an Internet web site or call center. Most all LBS providers will be able to tell you the approximate last known location, but beyond that, services offered will vary, depending on the type of cell phone and the capabilities of the service provider.
Disney Mobile
Disney Mobile operates as a mobile virtual network operator (MVNO) utilizing the enhanced Sprint Nationwide PCS Network. Designed for families, Disney Mobile features Family Locator (tm) allowing adults to locate kids phone by viewing map on the adults phone or on the Disney Mobile web site. Ref: DisneyMobile.com
Accutracking
Accutracking is a full-featured low-cost LBS provider using Motorolla, Boost Mobile and Blackberry phones operating on the Nextel network.See Accutracking.com
Nextel’s Mobile Locator
Nextel’s Mobile Locator is a service used in conjunction with Nextel calling plans with Nextel GPS-enabled phones. Mobile locator allows you to view and monitor your peoples’ location in real-time, either singly or within a group, on a zoomable, online map. The web interface allows you to view location history, based on your most recent queries. See: Nextel/Mobil_Locator web site for more info
Mapquest Find Me
Using certain models of Nextel phones, you can view a group of your peoples’ locations on one map, or you can view a track of an individual’s location history. Powered by uLocate, Mapquest provides a web interface for mobile devices like PDAs as well cell phones. Other features include in-depth location history detail. See www.mapquestfindme.com
Wherify Wireless
Developers of the "Wherifone" designed specifically for children and seniors. The Wherifone is supported solely by Wherify's Global Location Service Center. See: Wherify.com
Other Things to Keep in Mind
Here are some other things to keep in mind when deciding what products and services are right for you:
Permissions and Privacy
Simply put, tracking someone without their knowledge can get you in trouble. Typically, the subscriber must give permission and the cell phone must be enabled for tracking. Consult with your service providers for more detail.
Tracking Application "Persistence"
Again, the tracking application on a cell phone typically must be enabled by the user. Depending on your equipment, the application may persist - remaining enabled when the phone is turned on after having been turned off. This feature is particularly handy if you do not want to instruct the person using the phone how to turn tracking on and off.
Passive Tracking
Some tracking devices will record location data internally so that it can be downloaded later. Also referred to "data logging," which can provide location data even when the device has traveled outside the wireless network. Passive tracking is not a common feature built-in to cell phones (at the time this article was published), but more sophisicated java-enabled cell phones, PDAs, and other mobile devices may have this feature. You should ask your LBS provider if their appilication can accomodate passive tracking data from the more sophiscated tracking devices.
Assisted GPS (AGPS)
Some cell phones can receive ephemeris information on the GPS satellites, which speeds up the initial position fix. AGPS information may also help in finding satellites and getting positions in difficult conditions. To have AGPS features, your services must be set up to provide AGPS information to your cell phone and your cell phone must be able to process AGPS information.
Tower reports
In the absence of an accurate GPS location, service providers may record the location of the nearest cell tower. Check with your LBS to determine if Tower locations are used to determine cell phone locations.
GeoFencing
GeoFencing is a term used to describe a feature that enables the cell phone to only start tracking when it has entered or exited a predefined region, avoiding unnecessary tracking when your people are close to home, office, or school. Or GeoFencing may also mean that an alert is sent when their phone crosses a virtural fence. For example, AccuTracking will send email or SMS message when they move across the designated areas.
Speed Alerts
Some LBS providers provide email or SMS message alerts when specified speed limits are exceeded.
Tracking Map Quality
Most location services do not produce their own maps. Instead they purchase or license mapping products from other companies. Several popular services use Mapquest maps. Indeed, Mapquest can produce a map for just about anywhere in the world, but your service provider's license may be limited to United States. Microsoft MapPoint and Tiger map data are also popular for applications in the United States. If choosing between LBS providers, compare what the maps will look like.
Aerial photos – You can’t get street names from an aerial photo but you can get a better idea of the surrounding environment. The better location services will provide both maps and aerial photos.
Usage Costs
The costs associated with using the GPS for people tracking, include equipment costs, setup/activation fees, and usually network access subscriptions. In addition, your location service may charge for each location report or allot you a limited number of reports and charge you a premium for overages. For example Disney Mobile includes 5 location reports each month, but unlimited reporting is available as an optional plan.
Mobile to Mobile Tracking
Some tracking solutions enalbe you to access tracking maps on a mobile device. The ability to track someone using a using a cell phone, by using another cell phone, conjures up a chase scene from an old movie, where our hero is sitting in the back seat of a moving car with a radar-type device in a briefcase, shouting turn-by-turn directions to the driver in hot pursuit of evil villains.
* * *
I hope this helps!
- Doug
miércoles, 14 de mayo de 2008
Trimble Worldwide
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Company History
Little did Charlie Trimble and two others from Hewlett-Packard know they were creating an entire industry when they founded Trimble in 1978 above the old Los Altos theatre in Silicon Valley. But that's just what they did.
From its start, Trimble focused on developing innovative positioning and navigation products. Initially, the fledgling company based its products on LORAN technology, a ground-based navigation, location and timing system in U.S. coastal waters, and focused its products on the marine navigation market. At the same time, the Global Positioning System (GPS) was being developed by the U.S. as a dual-use technology. The same year Trimble was founded, the first GPS satellite, the NavStar, was launched.
Charlie Trimble was intrigued by the space-based location system; when complete, GPS would include at least 24 orbiting satellites and make it possible to address every point on the planet with absolute precision. Recognizing the unique and vast potential of the new technology to change the way we model our world, Charlie and the other founders' goal was to fully develop the immature GPS technology that Trimble had purchased from Hewlett-Packard.
By focusing its resources on harnessing and expanding the power of GPS through innovative products, Trimble spearheaded the rapid development of commercial and consumer applications, as well as military use of the new technology. Taking GPS from its exclusively military applications and applying it to traditional markets such as surveying and navigation would revitalize and redefine these markets, both highly dependent on positioning technology. Marrying GPS with other technologies, such as wireless communications, would spawn new and emerging markets that make use of position-centric information.
In 1982, Trimble began engineering products that would take advantage of the U.S. Government's newly launched GPS satellites. Trimble's first products using GPS technology benefited applications requiring precise measurements, such as in the land and hydrographic survey industries. In 1984, Trimble introduced the world's first commercial scientific-research and geodectic-survey products based on GPS for oil-drilling teams on offshore platforms.
Mariners soon began to use GPS location information - precise position points - to calculate real-time velocity and enhance navigation and performance of vessels between points.
From 1984 to 1988, Trimble greatly increased its family of products for scientific and research applications, as well as marine navigation markets. The next two years were explosive growth years, with Trimble receiving the first of its more than 700 issued U.S. and foreign patents for advances in GPS and other technology, making GPS viable and extremely useful in dynamic situations and commercial markets. During this time, Trimble also gained important access to other commercial markets by acquiring other companies.
In 1989, Trimble acquired the Navigation Systems Division of TAU Corporation and began developing differential GPS (DGPS) technology to provide increased accuracy for the fleet management market. Trimble also made headway into new markets in 1990 by acquiring a New Zealand company, Datacom Software Research Ltd., enabling Trimble to offer new survey and mapping software products.
The early 1990s were exciting times for the growing company. In 1990, Trimble was the first GPS company to go public, offering stock on the NASDAQ (TRMB); it was also the year that Trimble's product line became solely dedicated to GPS. During all this, Trimble continued its innovation efforts. For example, Trimble was among the first companies to integrate GPS technology with communications technology - enabling users to not only precisely locate anything on the face of the earth, but to share information and messages at the same time.
Trimble's Inmarsat-C GPS system enabled long-haul trucks and ships to keep in touch with home base, share forecasts about arrival times, and coordinate critically timed cargo handoffs.
In 1992, Trimble developed real-time kinematic (RTK) technology, allowing moment-by-moment GPS updates while on the move. For surveyors, this was revolutionary; GPS equipment now enabled them to do topographic mapping, stakeout, Geographic Information System (GIS) data acquisition, and as-built surveys in real-time.
Over the next several years, Trimble rapidly advanced GPS technology. In 1994, the company developed the first GPS receiver small enough to be integrated on a PC card. Just a year later, Trimble introduced the first 'plug-and-play' GPS sensor for laptops and PDAs. GPS was becoming more and more the 'new utility.' And that continued as chipsets became highly integrated, significantly lowering manufacturing costs and power consumption.
In 1998, Trimble was the first to put GPS and cellular communications on a single board; and in 1999, Trimble GPS was used in Seiko Epson's Locatio communication device, the world's first combination PDA, wireless phone, personal navigator and digital camera.
Under the leadership of Steve Berglund, Trimble has continued to grow, innovate and evolve in the new millennium. In 2000, Trimble was the first to develop a GPS architecture - FirstGPS™ technology - that uses the host product's CPU, a huge advance in enabling GPS technology to be integrated into more and more products.
Also in 2000, Trimble acquired the Spectra Precision Group, a leading provider of positioning solutions for the construction, surveying and agricultural markets. Through the acquisition, Trimble gained significant resources in positioning technology complementary to GPS, including laser and other optical devices.
That same year, Trimble also acquired Tripod Data Systems (TDS), a leading developer of data collection software and hardware for the land survey, construction and GIS markets. Both acquisitions were part of Trimble's strategic mission to define and transform the way position-centric information is used.
Trimble established the Mobile Solutions Division to offer Internet location-based services for the mobile workplace in April of 2001. The new capabilities allow Trimble to leverage its existing wireless business by offering complete end-to-end fleet management solutions as well as address the emerging market for location-enabled mobile devices.
In April of 2002, Trimble and Caterpillar began a joint venture, Caterpillar Trimble Controls Technologies LLC, to develop the next generation of advanced electronic guidance and control products for earthmoving machines in the construction, mining and waste industries. The joint venture develops machine control products that use site design information combined with accurate positioning technology to automatically control dozer blades and other machine tools. This leading-edge machine control technology combines historical Trimble positioning technology with capability gained through its acquisition of Spectra Precision.
The joint venture is the exclusive supplier to Trimble and Caterpillar, who will each market, distribute, service and support the products using both companies' independent distribution channels. Caterpillar offers products as a factory-installed option, while Trimble continues to address the aftermarket with products for earthmoving machines from Caterpillar and other equipment manufacturers.
Trimble and Nikon Corporation formed a 50-50 joint venture in Japan, Nikon-Trimble Co., Ltd., to address the survey instruments market in March of 2003. As part of the joint venture, Trimble acquired a 50 percent ownership stake in Nikon-Trimble Co., Ltd., which assumed the operations of Nikon Geotecs Co., Ltd. in Japan. The new entity focuses on the design and manufacture of surveying instruments including mechanical total stations and related products. In Japan, the joint venture distributes Nikon's survey products as well as Trimble's survey products including GPS and robotic total stations. Outside of Japan, Trimble became the exclusive distributor of Nikon survey and construction products. The joint venture enhances Trimble's market position in survey instruments through geographic expansion and market penetration. The Nikon instruments broaden Trimble's survey and construction product portfolio and enable the Company to better access emerging markets in Russia, Eastern Europe, India and China. It provides Trimble with the ability to sell its GPS and robotic technology to existing Nikon customers around the world. Additionally, the new company improves Trimble's market position in Japan, which remains a major market for survey instruments.
In June of 2003, Trimble acquired Applanix Corporation of Ontario, a leading developer of systems that integrate Inertial Navigation System (INS) and GPS technologies. The acquisition extends Trimble's technology portfolio and can enable increased robustness and capabilities in its future positioning products. A focus is in the survey and construction product lines where GPS, augmented with INS technology, offers the potential of improved satellite tracking and faster reacquisition times for precision RTK positioning. This is particularly important in cases where GPS satellite signals are obstructed in difficult environments such as high-rise urban or heavily forested areas.
In December of 2003, Trimble acquired French-based company MENSI S.A., a leading developer of terrestrial 3D scanning technology. The addition of 3D scanning to Trimble's other positioning technologies accelerates the development of new products that enhance productivity in Trimble's existing surveying, engineering and construction markets. 3D scanning enables users to collect and use much higher amounts of 3D data than other tools.
Trimble acquired GeoNav GmbH of Wunstorf, Germany, a provider of customized field data collection solutions for the cadastral survey market in Europe, in July of 2004. The addition of GeoNav's software resources, expertise and products enable Trimble to better address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions for the European market. GeoNav's suite of software products work seamlessly with Trimble's complete line of surveying systems including GPS rovers, base stations and optical total stations; they also provide acquisition, processing and display of precise real-time surveys.
To expand its wireless communication capabilities, Trimble acquired Pacific Crest Corporation of Santa Clara, California, in January of 2005. Pacific Crest is a leading supplier of wireless data communication systems for positioning and environmental monitoring applications. Pacific Crest's high-quality radio modems provide the necessary data link to increase GPS accuracy. Applications that can take advantage of wireless communications for precision performance includes RTK surveying and construction machine control for earthmoving operations.
In April of 2005, Trimble acquired Apache Technologies, Inc. of Dayton, Ohio. Apache designs, manufactures, and distributes professional laser products for construction leveling and alignment applications. The Apache acquisition extend Trimble's laser product portfolio for handheld laser detectors and entry-level machine displays and control systems. Apache's products set new standards for performance, accuracy, ruggedness, reliability, and repeatability in their respective markets and price ranges.
To better address field workforce management, Trimble acquired MobileTech Solutions, Inc. (MTS) of Dallas, Texas in October of 2005. MTS provides field workforce automation solutions and has a leading market position in the Direct Store Delivery (DSD) segment. Today, there are approximately 200,000 vehicles in the DSD segment. The MTS solution automates the sale and delivery of high-volume consumer products such as baked goods, beverages, dairy, frozen foods and snacks to retail stores. It provides real-time information to mobile field workers via handheld mobile computing devices to improve customer service levels, on-time deliveries and accurate invoicing. The turnkey solution includes mobile hardware and software that seamlessly integrates with a supplier's existing enterprise resource planning (ERP) software system. With the acquisition, Trimble can now offer highly integrated fleet management and mobile computing solutions into the DSD segment.
In January of 2006, Trimble acquired Advanced Public Safety, Inc. (APS) of Deerfield Beach, Florida. APS is a leading software development company that creates mobile and handheld software products used by law enforcement, fire-rescue and other public safety agencies. APS's software provides real-time information to police officers via in-vehicle computers and handheld mobile computing devices to improve safety, productivity and accuracy. The APS software seamlessly integrates with a public safety agency's Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD), criminal databases and Records Management Systems (RMS). In addition, APS offers a variety of software solutions for fire and rescue personnel to complete inspection and emergency medical reports as well as mapping and Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) applications. With the APS acquisition, Trimble plans to leverage its Tripod Data Systems' rugged mobile computing devices and Trimble Mobile Solutions' fleet management systems to provide complete mobile resource solutions for the public safety industry.
Trimble acquired intellectual property assets from The XYZs of GPS, Inc. of Dickerson, Maryland in February of 2006. The XYZs of GPS develops real-time Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) reference station, integrity monitoring and dynamic positioning software for meter, decimeter and centimeter applications. The purchase of The XYZs of GPS intellectual property extends Trimble's product portfolio of infrastructure solutions by providing software that enhances differential GNSS correction systems used in marine aides to navigation, surveying, civil engineering, hydrography, mapping and GIS, and scientific applications.
In April of 2006, Trimble acquired Quantm International, Inc. and its subsidiary Quantm Ltd. of Australia. Quantm is a leader in transportation route optimization software used for planning highways, railways, pipelines and canals. The innovative software system enables infrastructure planners to examine and select route corridors and alignments that simultaneously optimize construction costs, environmental restrictions, existing feature avoidance and legislative obligations. The improved solution for the proposed route results in significant reductions in project planning time and cost. Transportation route alignments generated by Quantm's software add another piece to Trimble's Connected Construction Site strategy by forming a closer link between the planning and design phases of a transportation project. The ultimate goal of the Connected Site seeks to improve efficiency through a tighter integration of construction process information.
Trimble acquired Eleven Technology, Inc. of Cambridge, Massachusetts in May of 2006. Eleven Technology is a mobile application software company with a leading market and technology position in the Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) industry. Eleven Technology's solution automates the sale and delivery of high-volume consumer products such as baked goods, beverages, dairy, frozen foods and snacks to retail stores. It provides real-time information to mobile field workers via handheld mobile computing devices to improve customer service levels, on-time deliveries and accurate invoicing. Eleven Technology has a complete solution suite for the CPG industry including applications for sales representatives, delivery drivers, merchandisers, field service technicians and supervisors. The solution includes mobile hardware and software that seamlessly integrates with a supplier's existing enterprise resource planning (ERP) software system. With the acquisition of Mobile Tech Solutions and Eleven Technology, Trimble is well positioned to lead this vertical segment as well as leverage our mobile workforce and fleet management applications into a fully integrated mobile resource management solution.
In May of 2006, Trimble acquired the assets of BitWyse Solutions, Inc. of Salem, Massachusetts. BitWyse is a leading data management company specializing in 2D and 3D software applications for engineering and construction plant design. The purchase of BitWyse's assets extends Trimble's product portfolio of 3D scanning solutions by providing application-specific software capabilities within the Power, Process, and Plant vertical markets. These markets are increasingly utilizing 3D scanning data to create as-built drawings, verify construction specifications and improve productivity.
In October of 2006, Trimble acquired Visual Statement Inc., of Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada. Visual Statement provides state-of-the-art software tools for crime and collision incident investigation, analysis and reconstruction, as well as state-wide enterprise solutions for reporting and analysis used by public safety agencies. The company is an additional investment in the Mobile Solutions business segment that supports Trimble's strategy of providing productivity solutions for mobile workers. The Visual Statement acquisition complements Trimble's subsidiary, Advanced Public Safety (APS).The combination of APS and Visual Statement will provide a comprehensive suite of solutions to offer public safety agencies throughout the Americas.
Trimble acquired XYZ Solutions, Inc., of Alpharetta, Georgia in October of 2006. XYZ Solutions provides real-time, interactive 3D intelligence software to manage the spatial aspects of a construction project. The software transforms data from various sources into actionable information that can be used in the decision making process to reduce rework and improve productivity for engineering and construction professionals. XYZ Solutions' unique 3D software package allows users to model spatial information combined with positioning technologies to virtually "see" a construction site or asset, from anywhere, at any time, in a collaborative Internet-based environment. Within its interactive environment, decision support guidelines or business rules can be integrated into the solution set to virtually model "what-if" scenarios on a project in real-time increasing customer awareness and profitability. The acquisition of XYZ Solutions adds a 3D visualization component to Trimble's Connected Construction Site strategy.
In November of 2006, Trimble acquired Meridian Systems, Inc., of Folsom, California. Meridian Systems is an established market leader in construction project management technologies to the building owner and architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) market segments. Meridian Systems provides enterprise project management and lifecycle software for optimizing the plan, build and operate lifecycle for real estate, construction and other physical infrastructure projects. Building owners, construction contractors, engineering firms, and government agencies use Meridian technology to reduce capital construction costs and improve project productivity. The acquisition of Meridian Systems adds the business and lifecycle management software component to Trimble's Connected Construction Site.
Trimble acquired Spacient Technologies, Inc. of Long Beach, California in November of 2006. Spacient is a leading provider of enterprise field service management and mobile mapping solutions for municipalities and utilities. The acquisition enhances Trimble's GIS and Mapping business by further expanding its solutions for the field and mobile workforce-a strategic area of focus for the Company.
In February of 2007, Trimble acquired publicly-traded @Road, Inc. of Fremont, California to expand its investment in Trimble's Mobile Solutions (TMS) while also reinforcing its existing growth strategy for the segment. The acquisition positions Trimble as a market leader in providing Mobile Resource Management (MRM) solutions. In addition to its industry-leading technology, @Road has developed deep domain expertise and a strong field service management capability within its MRM solution set to address challenges faced by a variety of industries, including transportation, distribution, telecommunications, cable, field service, utilities, facilities management and public works. This complements Trimble's existing domain expertise in the construction supply, direct store delivery, public safety and utilities industries.
Also in February of 2007, Trimble acquired INPHO GmbH of Stuttgart, Germany. INPHO is a leader in photogrammetry and digital surface modeling for aerial surveying, mapping and remote sensing applications. INPHO products are used by service companies offering geospatial data collection by photogrammetry and LIDAR as well as state authorities involved in supplying geospatial information. Photogrammetry adds a new dimension to Trimble to address the geospatial information industry, which has primarily focused on ground or terrestrial-based positioning solutions.
In September of 2007, Trimble acquired Ingenieurbüro Breining GmbH of Kirchheim, Germany. Breining is a provider of customized field data collection and office software solutions for the German survey and cadastral market. The addition of Breining software resources, expertise and products enable Trimble to further address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions for the German market.
To extend Trimble’s portfolio of field and mobile worker solutions within the utilities market, the company acquired the UtilityCenter® assets from privately-held UAI, Inc. of Huntsville, Alabama in November of 2007. UtilityCenter software provides a comprehensive suite of workflow solutions designed to automate the daily business operations of utilities—from work management, asset inventory, outage management and job order tracking to regulatory compliance reporting and updating maps while in the field. The acquisition of the UtilityCenter software enables Trimble to offer industry-specific field solutions to electric and gas utility customers. With a complete line of rugged data collection and mobile computing devices, TerraSync field asset software and UtilityCenter software, Trimble customers can now streamline many of their complex day-to-day operations. UtilityCenter software for the electric and gas utility market complements Trimble Fieldport software designed for the water/wastewater utility market.
Trimble acquired privately-held Crain Enterprises, Inc. of Mound City, Illinois, in January of 2008. Crain is a leading manufacturer of accessories for the geomatics, surveying, mapping, and construction industries. Crain's product lines include tripods, bipods, leveling rods, measuring rulers, prisms, prism and GPS poles, stream gauges, wire installation tools, as well as bags, packs, and sewn carrying cases for surveying and positioning instruments. The purchase of Crain allows Trimble to provide the necessary accessories that can be offered as part of its positioning solutions used in the Engineering and Construction markets. In addition, Crain and Trimble will be able to leverage distribution channels.
To further address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions across Germany and in Europe, Trimble acquired privately-held HHK Datentechnik GmbH of Braunschweig, Germany in January of 2008. HHK is a provider of customized office and field software solutions for the cadastral survey market in Germany.
Trimble acquired privately-held Géo-3D Inc. of Montreal, Canada also in January of 2008. Géo-3D is a leader in roadside infrastructure asset inventory solutions. The acquisition of Géo-3D extends Trimble's portfolio of field solutions to include mobile mapping specific to the transportation and utilities market. Géo-3D's geo-referenced land videography system rapidly documents images and positioning information to catalog roadside infrastructure such as road signs, guardrails, light poles and other assets. By automating roadside asset inventory management, transportation and utility organizations can increase productivity throughout the infrastructure’s lifecycle.
Over the past several years, acquisitions have played a role in our strategy, principally as mechanisms to establish beachheads in new market spaces, fill in product line gaps, or add new technologies to our solutions portfolio. More importantly, continued innovation and industry domain experience are the primary drivers which allow Trimble to focus on organic growth as our principal strategy in our core market segments-Engineering and Construction, Agriculture, the Mobile and Field Workforce, and Advanced Devices.
As communications standards, computer technology and applications software rapidly evolve, Trimble keeps pace, marrying GPS information as well as other positioning technology, to other data sources and types. More than just a GPS leader, Trimble is a true information technology leader, integrating other technologies such as wireless communications and information technology with GPS and other positioning technologies to maintain its position at the forefront of the Information Revolution.
Today, Trimble engineers worldwide are working on cutting-edge positioning applications that no one could even imagine just a few years ago. With more than 500 products, Trimble continues to lead the way in developing position-centric solutions to address some of the world's most complex challenges. Trimble technology can be found in consumer and commercial vehicles, construction equipment, farm machinery, computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and more. Innovative applications include dispatching and managing fleets, surveying and building roads, monitoring and mapping earthquake damage, recording and synchronizing international financial transactions, and improving the efficiency of wireless communications networks. Trimble is changing the way work is done by linking positioning to productivity.
Since 1999 Trimble's revenues have grown from approximately $270 million to over $1 billion in 2007. Trimble's mix of businesses has progressively moved away from a "box product" mentality towards a portfolio of products and solutions that enhance productivity.
It is this strategy as well as its investment in R&D and consistent financial performance that will drive Trimble's growth into the future.
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Trimble Home > About Trimble > Company History
About Trimble
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1978 - 1982 - 1984 - 1989 - 1990 - 1992 - 1998 - 2000 - 2002 - 2003 - 2004 - 2005 - 2006 - 2007 - 2008
Company History
Little did Charlie Trimble and two others from Hewlett-Packard know they were creating an entire industry when they founded Trimble in 1978 above the old Los Altos theatre in Silicon Valley. But that's just what they did.
From its start, Trimble focused on developing innovative positioning and navigation products. Initially, the fledgling company based its products on LORAN technology, a ground-based navigation, location and timing system in U.S. coastal waters, and focused its products on the marine navigation market. At the same time, the Global Positioning System (GPS) was being developed by the U.S. as a dual-use technology. The same year Trimble was founded, the first GPS satellite, the NavStar, was launched.
Charlie Trimble was intrigued by the space-based location system; when complete, GPS would include at least 24 orbiting satellites and make it possible to address every point on the planet with absolute precision. Recognizing the unique and vast potential of the new technology to change the way we model our world, Charlie and the other founders' goal was to fully develop the immature GPS technology that Trimble had purchased from Hewlett-Packard.
By focusing its resources on harnessing and expanding the power of GPS through innovative products, Trimble spearheaded the rapid development of commercial and consumer applications, as well as military use of the new technology. Taking GPS from its exclusively military applications and applying it to traditional markets such as surveying and navigation would revitalize and redefine these markets, both highly dependent on positioning technology. Marrying GPS with other technologies, such as wireless communications, would spawn new and emerging markets that make use of position-centric information.
In 1982, Trimble began engineering products that would take advantage of the U.S. Government's newly launched GPS satellites. Trimble's first products using GPS technology benefited applications requiring precise measurements, such as in the land and hydrographic survey industries. In 1984, Trimble introduced the world's first commercial scientific-research and geodectic-survey products based on GPS for oil-drilling teams on offshore platforms.
Mariners soon began to use GPS location information - precise position points - to calculate real-time velocity and enhance navigation and performance of vessels between points.
From 1984 to 1988, Trimble greatly increased its family of products for scientific and research applications, as well as marine navigation markets. The next two years were explosive growth years, with Trimble receiving the first of its more than 700 issued U.S. and foreign patents for advances in GPS and other technology, making GPS viable and extremely useful in dynamic situations and commercial markets. During this time, Trimble also gained important access to other commercial markets by acquiring other companies.
In 1989, Trimble acquired the Navigation Systems Division of TAU Corporation and began developing differential GPS (DGPS) technology to provide increased accuracy for the fleet management market. Trimble also made headway into new markets in 1990 by acquiring a New Zealand company, Datacom Software Research Ltd., enabling Trimble to offer new survey and mapping software products.
The early 1990s were exciting times for the growing company. In 1990, Trimble was the first GPS company to go public, offering stock on the NASDAQ (TRMB); it was also the year that Trimble's product line became solely dedicated to GPS. During all this, Trimble continued its innovation efforts. For example, Trimble was among the first companies to integrate GPS technology with communications technology - enabling users to not only precisely locate anything on the face of the earth, but to share information and messages at the same time.
Trimble's Inmarsat-C GPS system enabled long-haul trucks and ships to keep in touch with home base, share forecasts about arrival times, and coordinate critically timed cargo handoffs.
In 1992, Trimble developed real-time kinematic (RTK) technology, allowing moment-by-moment GPS updates while on the move. For surveyors, this was revolutionary; GPS equipment now enabled them to do topographic mapping, stakeout, Geographic Information System (GIS) data acquisition, and as-built surveys in real-time.
Over the next several years, Trimble rapidly advanced GPS technology. In 1994, the company developed the first GPS receiver small enough to be integrated on a PC card. Just a year later, Trimble introduced the first 'plug-and-play' GPS sensor for laptops and PDAs. GPS was becoming more and more the 'new utility.' And that continued as chipsets became highly integrated, significantly lowering manufacturing costs and power consumption.
In 1998, Trimble was the first to put GPS and cellular communications on a single board; and in 1999, Trimble GPS was used in Seiko Epson's Locatio communication device, the world's first combination PDA, wireless phone, personal navigator and digital camera.
Under the leadership of Steve Berglund, Trimble has continued to grow, innovate and evolve in the new millennium. In 2000, Trimble was the first to develop a GPS architecture - FirstGPS™ technology - that uses the host product's CPU, a huge advance in enabling GPS technology to be integrated into more and more products.
Also in 2000, Trimble acquired the Spectra Precision Group, a leading provider of positioning solutions for the construction, surveying and agricultural markets. Through the acquisition, Trimble gained significant resources in positioning technology complementary to GPS, including laser and other optical devices.
That same year, Trimble also acquired Tripod Data Systems (TDS), a leading developer of data collection software and hardware for the land survey, construction and GIS markets. Both acquisitions were part of Trimble's strategic mission to define and transform the way position-centric information is used.
Trimble established the Mobile Solutions Division to offer Internet location-based services for the mobile workplace in April of 2001. The new capabilities allow Trimble to leverage its existing wireless business by offering complete end-to-end fleet management solutions as well as address the emerging market for location-enabled mobile devices.
In April of 2002, Trimble and Caterpillar began a joint venture, Caterpillar Trimble Controls Technologies LLC, to develop the next generation of advanced electronic guidance and control products for earthmoving machines in the construction, mining and waste industries. The joint venture develops machine control products that use site design information combined with accurate positioning technology to automatically control dozer blades and other machine tools. This leading-edge machine control technology combines historical Trimble positioning technology with capability gained through its acquisition of Spectra Precision.
The joint venture is the exclusive supplier to Trimble and Caterpillar, who will each market, distribute, service and support the products using both companies' independent distribution channels. Caterpillar offers products as a factory-installed option, while Trimble continues to address the aftermarket with products for earthmoving machines from Caterpillar and other equipment manufacturers.
Trimble and Nikon Corporation formed a 50-50 joint venture in Japan, Nikon-Trimble Co., Ltd., to address the survey instruments market in March of 2003. As part of the joint venture, Trimble acquired a 50 percent ownership stake in Nikon-Trimble Co., Ltd., which assumed the operations of Nikon Geotecs Co., Ltd. in Japan. The new entity focuses on the design and manufacture of surveying instruments including mechanical total stations and related products. In Japan, the joint venture distributes Nikon's survey products as well as Trimble's survey products including GPS and robotic total stations. Outside of Japan, Trimble became the exclusive distributor of Nikon survey and construction products. The joint venture enhances Trimble's market position in survey instruments through geographic expansion and market penetration. The Nikon instruments broaden Trimble's survey and construction product portfolio and enable the Company to better access emerging markets in Russia, Eastern Europe, India and China. It provides Trimble with the ability to sell its GPS and robotic technology to existing Nikon customers around the world. Additionally, the new company improves Trimble's market position in Japan, which remains a major market for survey instruments.
In June of 2003, Trimble acquired Applanix Corporation of Ontario, a leading developer of systems that integrate Inertial Navigation System (INS) and GPS technologies. The acquisition extends Trimble's technology portfolio and can enable increased robustness and capabilities in its future positioning products. A focus is in the survey and construction product lines where GPS, augmented with INS technology, offers the potential of improved satellite tracking and faster reacquisition times for precision RTK positioning. This is particularly important in cases where GPS satellite signals are obstructed in difficult environments such as high-rise urban or heavily forested areas.
In December of 2003, Trimble acquired French-based company MENSI S.A., a leading developer of terrestrial 3D scanning technology. The addition of 3D scanning to Trimble's other positioning technologies accelerates the development of new products that enhance productivity in Trimble's existing surveying, engineering and construction markets. 3D scanning enables users to collect and use much higher amounts of 3D data than other tools.
Trimble acquired GeoNav GmbH of Wunstorf, Germany, a provider of customized field data collection solutions for the cadastral survey market in Europe, in July of 2004. The addition of GeoNav's software resources, expertise and products enable Trimble to better address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions for the European market. GeoNav's suite of software products work seamlessly with Trimble's complete line of surveying systems including GPS rovers, base stations and optical total stations; they also provide acquisition, processing and display of precise real-time surveys.
To expand its wireless communication capabilities, Trimble acquired Pacific Crest Corporation of Santa Clara, California, in January of 2005. Pacific Crest is a leading supplier of wireless data communication systems for positioning and environmental monitoring applications. Pacific Crest's high-quality radio modems provide the necessary data link to increase GPS accuracy. Applications that can take advantage of wireless communications for precision performance includes RTK surveying and construction machine control for earthmoving operations.
In April of 2005, Trimble acquired Apache Technologies, Inc. of Dayton, Ohio. Apache designs, manufactures, and distributes professional laser products for construction leveling and alignment applications. The Apache acquisition extend Trimble's laser product portfolio for handheld laser detectors and entry-level machine displays and control systems. Apache's products set new standards for performance, accuracy, ruggedness, reliability, and repeatability in their respective markets and price ranges.
To better address field workforce management, Trimble acquired MobileTech Solutions, Inc. (MTS) of Dallas, Texas in October of 2005. MTS provides field workforce automation solutions and has a leading market position in the Direct Store Delivery (DSD) segment. Today, there are approximately 200,000 vehicles in the DSD segment. The MTS solution automates the sale and delivery of high-volume consumer products such as baked goods, beverages, dairy, frozen foods and snacks to retail stores. It provides real-time information to mobile field workers via handheld mobile computing devices to improve customer service levels, on-time deliveries and accurate invoicing. The turnkey solution includes mobile hardware and software that seamlessly integrates with a supplier's existing enterprise resource planning (ERP) software system. With the acquisition, Trimble can now offer highly integrated fleet management and mobile computing solutions into the DSD segment.
In January of 2006, Trimble acquired Advanced Public Safety, Inc. (APS) of Deerfield Beach, Florida. APS is a leading software development company that creates mobile and handheld software products used by law enforcement, fire-rescue and other public safety agencies. APS's software provides real-time information to police officers via in-vehicle computers and handheld mobile computing devices to improve safety, productivity and accuracy. The APS software seamlessly integrates with a public safety agency's Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD), criminal databases and Records Management Systems (RMS). In addition, APS offers a variety of software solutions for fire and rescue personnel to complete inspection and emergency medical reports as well as mapping and Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL) applications. With the APS acquisition, Trimble plans to leverage its Tripod Data Systems' rugged mobile computing devices and Trimble Mobile Solutions' fleet management systems to provide complete mobile resource solutions for the public safety industry.
Trimble acquired intellectual property assets from The XYZs of GPS, Inc. of Dickerson, Maryland in February of 2006. The XYZs of GPS develops real-time Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) reference station, integrity monitoring and dynamic positioning software for meter, decimeter and centimeter applications. The purchase of The XYZs of GPS intellectual property extends Trimble's product portfolio of infrastructure solutions by providing software that enhances differential GNSS correction systems used in marine aides to navigation, surveying, civil engineering, hydrography, mapping and GIS, and scientific applications.
In April of 2006, Trimble acquired Quantm International, Inc. and its subsidiary Quantm Ltd. of Australia. Quantm is a leader in transportation route optimization software used for planning highways, railways, pipelines and canals. The innovative software system enables infrastructure planners to examine and select route corridors and alignments that simultaneously optimize construction costs, environmental restrictions, existing feature avoidance and legislative obligations. The improved solution for the proposed route results in significant reductions in project planning time and cost. Transportation route alignments generated by Quantm's software add another piece to Trimble's Connected Construction Site strategy by forming a closer link between the planning and design phases of a transportation project. The ultimate goal of the Connected Site seeks to improve efficiency through a tighter integration of construction process information.
Trimble acquired Eleven Technology, Inc. of Cambridge, Massachusetts in May of 2006. Eleven Technology is a mobile application software company with a leading market and technology position in the Consumer Packaged Goods (CPG) industry. Eleven Technology's solution automates the sale and delivery of high-volume consumer products such as baked goods, beverages, dairy, frozen foods and snacks to retail stores. It provides real-time information to mobile field workers via handheld mobile computing devices to improve customer service levels, on-time deliveries and accurate invoicing. Eleven Technology has a complete solution suite for the CPG industry including applications for sales representatives, delivery drivers, merchandisers, field service technicians and supervisors. The solution includes mobile hardware and software that seamlessly integrates with a supplier's existing enterprise resource planning (ERP) software system. With the acquisition of Mobile Tech Solutions and Eleven Technology, Trimble is well positioned to lead this vertical segment as well as leverage our mobile workforce and fleet management applications into a fully integrated mobile resource management solution.
In May of 2006, Trimble acquired the assets of BitWyse Solutions, Inc. of Salem, Massachusetts. BitWyse is a leading data management company specializing in 2D and 3D software applications for engineering and construction plant design. The purchase of BitWyse's assets extends Trimble's product portfolio of 3D scanning solutions by providing application-specific software capabilities within the Power, Process, and Plant vertical markets. These markets are increasingly utilizing 3D scanning data to create as-built drawings, verify construction specifications and improve productivity.
In October of 2006, Trimble acquired Visual Statement Inc., of Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada. Visual Statement provides state-of-the-art software tools for crime and collision incident investigation, analysis and reconstruction, as well as state-wide enterprise solutions for reporting and analysis used by public safety agencies. The company is an additional investment in the Mobile Solutions business segment that supports Trimble's strategy of providing productivity solutions for mobile workers. The Visual Statement acquisition complements Trimble's subsidiary, Advanced Public Safety (APS).The combination of APS and Visual Statement will provide a comprehensive suite of solutions to offer public safety agencies throughout the Americas.
Trimble acquired XYZ Solutions, Inc., of Alpharetta, Georgia in October of 2006. XYZ Solutions provides real-time, interactive 3D intelligence software to manage the spatial aspects of a construction project. The software transforms data from various sources into actionable information that can be used in the decision making process to reduce rework and improve productivity for engineering and construction professionals. XYZ Solutions' unique 3D software package allows users to model spatial information combined with positioning technologies to virtually "see" a construction site or asset, from anywhere, at any time, in a collaborative Internet-based environment. Within its interactive environment, decision support guidelines or business rules can be integrated into the solution set to virtually model "what-if" scenarios on a project in real-time increasing customer awareness and profitability. The acquisition of XYZ Solutions adds a 3D visualization component to Trimble's Connected Construction Site strategy.
In November of 2006, Trimble acquired Meridian Systems, Inc., of Folsom, California. Meridian Systems is an established market leader in construction project management technologies to the building owner and architecture, engineering and construction (AEC) market segments. Meridian Systems provides enterprise project management and lifecycle software for optimizing the plan, build and operate lifecycle for real estate, construction and other physical infrastructure projects. Building owners, construction contractors, engineering firms, and government agencies use Meridian technology to reduce capital construction costs and improve project productivity. The acquisition of Meridian Systems adds the business and lifecycle management software component to Trimble's Connected Construction Site.
Trimble acquired Spacient Technologies, Inc. of Long Beach, California in November of 2006. Spacient is a leading provider of enterprise field service management and mobile mapping solutions for municipalities and utilities. The acquisition enhances Trimble's GIS and Mapping business by further expanding its solutions for the field and mobile workforce-a strategic area of focus for the Company.
In February of 2007, Trimble acquired publicly-traded @Road, Inc. of Fremont, California to expand its investment in Trimble's Mobile Solutions (TMS) while also reinforcing its existing growth strategy for the segment. The acquisition positions Trimble as a market leader in providing Mobile Resource Management (MRM) solutions. In addition to its industry-leading technology, @Road has developed deep domain expertise and a strong field service management capability within its MRM solution set to address challenges faced by a variety of industries, including transportation, distribution, telecommunications, cable, field service, utilities, facilities management and public works. This complements Trimble's existing domain expertise in the construction supply, direct store delivery, public safety and utilities industries.
Also in February of 2007, Trimble acquired INPHO GmbH of Stuttgart, Germany. INPHO is a leader in photogrammetry and digital surface modeling for aerial surveying, mapping and remote sensing applications. INPHO products are used by service companies offering geospatial data collection by photogrammetry and LIDAR as well as state authorities involved in supplying geospatial information. Photogrammetry adds a new dimension to Trimble to address the geospatial information industry, which has primarily focused on ground or terrestrial-based positioning solutions.
In September of 2007, Trimble acquired Ingenieurbüro Breining GmbH of Kirchheim, Germany. Breining is a provider of customized field data collection and office software solutions for the German survey and cadastral market. The addition of Breining software resources, expertise and products enable Trimble to further address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions for the German market.
To extend Trimble’s portfolio of field and mobile worker solutions within the utilities market, the company acquired the UtilityCenter® assets from privately-held UAI, Inc. of Huntsville, Alabama in November of 2007. UtilityCenter software provides a comprehensive suite of workflow solutions designed to automate the daily business operations of utilities—from work management, asset inventory, outage management and job order tracking to regulatory compliance reporting and updating maps while in the field. The acquisition of the UtilityCenter software enables Trimble to offer industry-specific field solutions to electric and gas utility customers. With a complete line of rugged data collection and mobile computing devices, TerraSync field asset software and UtilityCenter software, Trimble customers can now streamline many of their complex day-to-day operations. UtilityCenter software for the electric and gas utility market complements Trimble Fieldport software designed for the water/wastewater utility market.
Trimble acquired privately-held Crain Enterprises, Inc. of Mound City, Illinois, in January of 2008. Crain is a leading manufacturer of accessories for the geomatics, surveying, mapping, and construction industries. Crain's product lines include tripods, bipods, leveling rods, measuring rulers, prisms, prism and GPS poles, stream gauges, wire installation tools, as well as bags, packs, and sewn carrying cases for surveying and positioning instruments. The purchase of Crain allows Trimble to provide the necessary accessories that can be offered as part of its positioning solutions used in the Engineering and Construction markets. In addition, Crain and Trimble will be able to leverage distribution channels.
To further address local application requirements and provide customized survey solutions across Germany and in Europe, Trimble acquired privately-held HHK Datentechnik GmbH of Braunschweig, Germany in January of 2008. HHK is a provider of customized office and field software solutions for the cadastral survey market in Germany.
Trimble acquired privately-held Géo-3D Inc. of Montreal, Canada also in January of 2008. Géo-3D is a leader in roadside infrastructure asset inventory solutions. The acquisition of Géo-3D extends Trimble's portfolio of field solutions to include mobile mapping specific to the transportation and utilities market. Géo-3D's geo-referenced land videography system rapidly documents images and positioning information to catalog roadside infrastructure such as road signs, guardrails, light poles and other assets. By automating roadside asset inventory management, transportation and utility organizations can increase productivity throughout the infrastructure’s lifecycle.
Over the past several years, acquisitions have played a role in our strategy, principally as mechanisms to establish beachheads in new market spaces, fill in product line gaps, or add new technologies to our solutions portfolio. More importantly, continued innovation and industry domain experience are the primary drivers which allow Trimble to focus on organic growth as our principal strategy in our core market segments-Engineering and Construction, Agriculture, the Mobile and Field Workforce, and Advanced Devices.
As communications standards, computer technology and applications software rapidly evolve, Trimble keeps pace, marrying GPS information as well as other positioning technology, to other data sources and types. More than just a GPS leader, Trimble is a true information technology leader, integrating other technologies such as wireless communications and information technology with GPS and other positioning technologies to maintain its position at the forefront of the Information Revolution.
Today, Trimble engineers worldwide are working on cutting-edge positioning applications that no one could even imagine just a few years ago. With more than 500 products, Trimble continues to lead the way in developing position-centric solutions to address some of the world's most complex challenges. Trimble technology can be found in consumer and commercial vehicles, construction equipment, farm machinery, computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs) and more. Innovative applications include dispatching and managing fleets, surveying and building roads, monitoring and mapping earthquake damage, recording and synchronizing international financial transactions, and improving the efficiency of wireless communications networks. Trimble is changing the way work is done by linking positioning to productivity.
Since 1999 Trimble's revenues have grown from approximately $270 million to over $1 billion in 2007. Trimble's mix of businesses has progressively moved away from a "box product" mentality towards a portfolio of products and solutions that enhance productivity.
It is this strategy as well as its investment in R&D and consistent financial performance that will drive Trimble's growth into the future.
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2008, TRIMBLE NAVIGATION LIMITED
Panama
Fuente: FAO-Forestry. Cláusula de exención de responsabilidad.
Version: 2000
Geografía y Población
La República de Panamá se localiza entre los 7° y 9° N de latitud y los 77° y 83° W de longitud. Con una superficie de 75 517 km2 es el país más estrecho del istmo centroamericano. Cuenta con un litoral de 1 700 km con el Océano Pacífico y 1 288 km con el Océano Atlántico. Limita al norte con el Mar Caribe, al sur con el Océano Pacífico, al este con Colombia y al oeste con Costa Rica. El país se divide en 9 provincias y 4 comarcas indígenas.
Su orografía la configura el corredor montañoso que atraviesa el país de oeste a este: cordillera de Chiriquí, sierra de Tabasará, cordillera Central, cordillera de San Blas y serranía de El Darién, dividiendo las aguas entre la vertiente del Océano Pacífico (70 por ciento del territorio) y la del Mar Caribe (30 por ciento). De los 7,55 millones de ha del territorio, 1,7 millones de ha se consideran área cultivable y 4,6 millones de ha áreas para pastos y uso forestal.
El censo de 1990 registró 2 329 329 habitantes con proyección media para el año 2000 de 2 855 703 hab. La tasa de crecimiento es del 2,6 por ciento anual. El Producto Interior Bruto (PIB) de Panamá en 1997 fue de 8 800 millones de $EE.UU., del cual el sector agrícola representó el 7,1 por ciento.
Clima y Recursos Hídricos
Clima
El clima de Panamá es típicamente tropical, influenciado por ambos océanos y por los desplazamientos de la ZCI que dan origen a las altas precipitaciones. Se caracteriza por tener temperaturas moderadamente altas, constantes durante todo el año con promedio de 27°C y débil oscilación térmica diaria. La humedad relativa es alta, del orden del 75 por ciento, y la evapotranspiración potencial anual promedio es 2 000 mm. Existen dos estaciones climáticas bien definidas: la seca y la lluviosa. La estación seca se extiende desde mediados de diciembre hasta abril y la lluviosa, de mayo a diciembre.
La siguiente Tabla resume las características climáticas de Panamá. El clima tropical húmedo y muy húmedo es propio de las zonas costeras de ambos océanos, mientras que el templado húmedo y muy húmedo es propido de las tierras altas. En la provincia de Coclé y península de Azuero (provincias Herrera y Los Santos), definida como el Arco Seco, se tiene clima tropical seco con precipitaciones anuales inferiores a los 1 500 mm (las menores del país), y escasez de aguas superficiales y subterráneas en comparación con el resto del territorio. La precipitación media anual de Panamá es la mayor del istmo centroamericano, variando entre los 1 100 y los 5 500 mm, con una media anual de 3 094 mm/año .
Características climáticas de Panamá.
Tipo de clima: Templado humedo y muy humedo.
Localización: Llanuras costerasy colinas del Atlánticoy Pacífico entre 0 y 700 m
Temperaturamedia (°C): Entre 28 y 34 Grados Centigrado
Precipitaciónmedia anual (mm)
Llanuras costerasy colinas del Atlánticoy Pacífico entre 0 y 700 m
Entre2 600 y 5 500
Entre18 y 20
Entre4 000 y 7 000
Tropical Seco
Península de Azuero
Entre28 y 34
Entre1 000 y 1 500
Recursos Hídricos
En Panamá existen 51 cuencas hidrográficas, 18 en la Vertiente del Atlántico y 33 en la del Pacífico. Por su orografía y la estrechez de su territorio, la mayoría de los ríos son de corta longitud y descargan perpendicularmente al litoral costero. El volumen medio de precipitación anual es del orden de 233,6 km3, y la escorrentía media superficial es de 144,1 km3/año, siendo el 60 por ciento aportado por la vertiente del Pacífico y el resto por la vertiente del Atlántico. Las cuencas con mayor abundancia de agua y potencial para su aprovechamiento son las de los ríos Changuinola-Teribe, Guarumo, Cricamola, Calovebora y Veraguas en la vertiente Atlántica y en la vertiente del Pacífico los ríos Chiriquí, Fonseca, Tabasará y San Pablo.
El río Chagres, con los lagos artificiales de Alajuela y Gatún, son las principales fuentes en la regulación del escurrimiento de navegación para la operación anual de la vía interoceánica del Canal de Panamá (caudal mínimo 2,8 km3/año).
El volumen de agua subterránea aprovechable se estima en 3,31 km3/año, el 87 por ciento en la vertiente del Pacífico y el 13 por ciento en la vertiente del Atlántico, siendo la región del Arco Seco la de uso más intensivo para agua potable y riego. La calidad de dicha agua se considera buena para el riego y el abastecimiento. No se realiza un control sobre la perforación de pozos ni sobre los volúmenes de extracción.
Panamá sólo tiene cuencas compartidas con Costa Rica en los ríos Sixaola y Teribe. Existe un convenio para la regulación y aprovechamiento del río Sixaola, como parte del Parque Internacional La Amistad, considerado área protegida binacional y Reserva de la Biosfera. La frontera con Colombia está constituida en su mayor parte por las divisorias de las cuencas de los ríos Tuira y Balsas y no existen transferencias de agua significativas.
Lagos y Embalses
Existen en el país cinco embalses:
Gatún (427 km2, 5,22 km3),
Alajuela (41,4 km2, 0,56 km3),
Bayano (254 km2, 3,14 km3),
Fortuna (3,7 km2, 0,06 km3) y
Yeguada (1,1 km2, 0,02 km3)
con una capacidad total de embalse cercana a los 9 km3.
El potencial hidroeléctrico práctico nacional se calcula en 3 568 Mw (31 247 Gwh, con un 56 por ciento en la vertiente del Pacífico). Las cuencas de mayor potencial son: Changuinola (3 600 Gwh) Cricamola-Calovebora-Veraguas (7 425 Gwh), Tabasará-Fonseca (7 418 Gwh) y Chiriquí (4 290 Gwh). En 1993, La capacidad instalada total de generación eléctrica sumó 912,4 MW, de las cuales 551 MW eran de plantas hidroeléctricas. Las mayores son La Fortuna 300 MW, Bayano 150 MW y Los Valles 48 MW. La generación bruta de electricidad en 1997 fue de 4 050 GWh, de los cuales 2 902 GWh eran de orígen hidroeléctrico y 1 148 GWh de orígen térmico.
Extracción de Agua
No existen datos de extracción de agua para los diferentes sectores. Sin embargo, la figura 1 muestra estimaciones de dicha información en el año 1990. El Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales IDAAN abastece la Zona Metropolitana (provincias Panamá y Colón), provincia de Chiriquí, y las provincias Centrales (Herrera, Coclé, Los Santos y Veraguas). El abastecimiento de agua potable utiliza fundamentalmente aguas superficiales, que en el país son de buena calidad. En 1997 el volumen de agua de abastecimiento e industrial fue de 461 millones de m3, del cual 380 millones de m3 fueron producidos y 81 millones de m3 fueron comprados. El IDAAN compra agua en bloque a la planta potabilizadora de Mirafolres, la cual es de propiedad y operada por la Comisión del Canal de Panamá, que es la entidad federal de los Estados Unidos de América de la administración y operación del canal de Panamá hasta el 31 de diciembre de 1999, fecha en la cual la administración y operación del Canal será asumida por la entidad denominada Autoridad del Canal de Panamá, perteneciente a la República de Panamá.
Figura. 1. Extracción de agua por sectores en 1990. Extracción total del agua: 1,5 km3/año
En el ámbito nacional, las plantas de tratamiento de aguas servidas son escasas, excepto en ciertas áreas de la ciudad de Panamá que realizan un tratamiento primario a las aguas residuales, antes de descargarlas al mar. En algunas plantas, los caudales de diseño han sido superados por el aumento de la población servida, y en otras, la falta de mantenimiento ocasiona una operación deficientemente. La descarga de aguas residuales sin tratamiento es el principal origen de la contaminación que afecta a la Bahía de Panamá. Los caudales de retorno se estiman en 394 millones de m3/año, con una cobertura de alcantarillados del 53 por ciento de la población.
Desarrollo del riego y el drenaje
Existen aproximadamente 270 000 ha con suelos aptos para el riego, la mayor parte del área situada en Chiriquí y el Arco Seco. No obstante, en base a la disponibilidad de aguas la estimación de dicho parámetro se reduce a 186 897 ha y a 71 673 ha considerando sólo el uso de aguas superficiales, en base a los caudales mínimos, sin la construcción de ninguna presa.
El riego se inició en Panamá en 1920 con las plantaciones de banano, aumentándose el área regada a mitad del siglo, con el cultivo de la caña de azúcar. La participación del Estado comenzó en 1960 con un énfasis especial en la región del Arco Seco. En 1970 existían bajo riego 22 300 ha y en los años 80 se llegó a las 37 000 ha. En 1990, con el desarrollo de 130 pequeños proyectos, el área bajo riego alcanzó 41 000 ha, beneficiando a 1000 familias. Los productores de Azuero y Cocle promovieron en 1992 y 1993 la utilización del riego, como consecuencia de los efectos de la sequía experimentada en dicha época. No obstante, alrededor de 7 000 ha dejaron de ser regadas entre 1990 y 1995, la mayoría de las cuales eran parte de sistemas de riego público y estatales. Esto fue consecuencia de la recesión económica al inicio de la década y del deterioro y posterior abandono de las explotaciones agrícolas públicas. Desde 1995 se renovó el interés por modernizar la producción agrícola y el incremento de la productividad, promoviéndose la integración de los agricultores en los mercados internacionales. En 1996 se formó la Dirección Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (DINDA) del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA), destinada a apoyar la reactivación del riego en el país y se dió paso a la formulación del Plan Nacional de Riego y Drenaje.
En 1997, la superficie equipada para el riego era de 34 626 ha y la superficie regada fue de 27 886 ha. El área principal de riego está localizada en las provinicias de Chiriquí, Veraguas, Coclé, Herrera y Los Santos (figura 2). Las últimas tres provincias en conjunto forman el Arco Seco en la costa del Pacífico, con un promedio de 25 mm/mes en los meses de verano.
Figura. 2. Superficie regada en el sector público y privado por provincias en 1997. Total: 27 886 ha. Las provincias no mencionadas no disponen de riego.
Las diferencias entre áreas regadas y su extensión regable se debe a la falta de cultura de riego en algunos agricultores, al abandono del riego por deterioro de la infraestructura de los sistemas, a los altos costos de rehabilitación y otros factores económicos que indujeron a los agricultores en años pasados, a cambiar su actividad hacia la ganadería. En los últimos años, a través de los proyectos desarrollados por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA), se está invirtiendo el proceso gracias a mejores precios de mercado y la concienciación en el uso racional del agua y suelo.
La superficie regada se puede dividir en sistemas de riego púbico y privado. La superficie equipada de riego público en 1997 era de 9 450 ha pero la superficie regada era de sólo 2 710 ha. Asímismo ésta se divide en cuatro sistemas de riego público (Lajas con superficie regable de 1 200 ha y sin regar, El Caño con superficie regable de 1 000 ha y regada de 350 ha, La Herradura con superficie regable de 500 ha y regada de 250 ha, y El Salto con superficie regable de 150 ha y regada de 75 ha) construidos y operados por el estado para el uso colectivo de agricultores y dos empresas estatales (Ingenio La Victoria con superficie regable de 6 500 ha y regada 1 985 ha y el INA con superficie regable de 100 ha y regada 50 ha). Los cuatro sistemas de riego público dependen de aguas superficiales, ya sea directamente de bocatomas en los ríos o por bombeo de éstos. Todos los sistemas, a excepción de El Salto, son sistemas de riego por gravedad produciendo arroz. El Salto es un sistema de riego a presión que utiliza aspersión y riego localizado para la producción de cultivos hortícolas.
El sector privado domina la superficie bajo riego. En 1997 se tenían 25 175 ha, es decir el 90 por ciento de la superficie bajo riego en el país. Coclé es la provincia más importante en términos de sistemas de riego privado con más del 55 por ciento del total, seguido por Chiriquí con 35 por ciento. Aproximadamente, el 30 por ciento del área privada está regada por sistemas modernos de aspersión o riego localizado. En la provincia de Chiriquí domina el uso de la tecnología moderna con el 76 por ciento de la superficie regada por aspersión. El riego localizado se concentra en el Arco Seco con 553 ha sembradas para cultivos de exportación.
La figura 3 muestra las técnicas de riego utilizadas en 1997: el 68 por ciento por superficie, el 30 por ciento por aspersión y el 2 por ciento restante por riego localizado. La figura 4 muestra el predominio del uso de agua superficial con respecto al agua subterránea en los sistemas de riego.
Figura. 3. Técnicas de riego en Panamá en 1997
El cobro adoptado del agua es 20 $EE.UU./ha y por cultivo, valor que no cubre los costos reales de operación y mantenimiento, que resultan subsidiados en buena parte. Los costos de operación y mantenimiento reales en 1997 de los sistemas de riego públicos fueron de 28 $EE.UU./ha en El Caño, de 17,1 $EE.UU./ha en La Herradura y de 124 $EE.UU./ha en El Salto. Los costos de rehabilitación que se están llevando a cabo en algunos sistemas de riego público oscilan entre los 1 780 $EE.UU./ha y los 3 890 $EE.UU./ha.
Figura. 4. Origen de las aguas de riego en Panamá
La figura 5 muestra la distribución de los usuarios del riego en Panamá en 1997. Los usuarios de los sistemas en su mayoría son propietarios de la tierra. Sin embargo, existen graves problemas de titulación de la tierra. Según el censo de 1990, en el 68 por ciento de las explotaciones agropecuarias los productores no cuentan con título de propiedad, el 31 por ciento cuentan con título y el resto están en régimen de arrendamiento. Por ejemplo, muchas de las tierras agrícolas en la provincia de Los Santos pertenecen a ganaderos y éstas son arrendadas a los productores de cultivos de exportación, como por ejemplo el tomate o el melón. La incertidumbre sobre la tenencia de la tierra ha limitado los incentivos y por ende las inversiones en producción, mantenimiento de las tierras e infraestructura.
Figura. 5. Número de usuarios en las áreas bajo riego en 1997.
El sector agrario representa casi la mitad del valor de todas las exportaciones y absorbe una quinta parte de la fuerza laboral. Los principales cultivos bajo riego son los tradicionales (caña de azúcar, arroz y banano) tal como muestra la figura 6. Existen también hortalizas y frutas para consumo interno, y cultivos no tradicionales, como la palma africana y el coco para exportación. El gobierno promueve actualmente la diversificación a estos últimos cultivos.
Figura. 6. Cultivos principales en la superficie bajo riego en 1997 en Panamá. Superficie bajo riego cosechada (1997): 27 886 ha.
En Panamá no se tienen problemas de salinización de suelos, y los proyectos de drenaje y anegamiento no son prioritarios debido a la disponibilidad de tierras faltas de irrigación.
Entorno institucional
El manejo de Recursos Hídricos lo asumen según competencia:
(i) El Instituto de Recursos Hidráulicos y Electrificación (IRHE) a cargo del manejo de cuencas y generación hidroeléctrica (en vías de privatización en ocho empresas). Existen perspectivas para la creación de un nuevo Servicio Nacional de Hidrología y Meteorología , que asuma las funciones en recursos hídricos del IRHE.
(ii) El Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) y la Dirección Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (DINDA), ahora entidad de apoyo y promoción agrícola. Se encargan del manejo y conservación de suelos y la transferencia de los sistemas de riego estatales a los usuarios.
(iii) La Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente (ANAM) de reciente creación (antiguo Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables INRENARE). Es la responsable de la administración del agua, medio ambiente y desarrollo de recursos naturales renovables, además del otorgamiento de concesiones de uso del agua, incluyendo el riego.
(iv) El Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales (IDAAN), limitado a la operación y explotación de los acueductos y alcantarillados (poblaciones con más de 1 500 habitantes). No obstante, se ha creado una Comisión de Incorporación de la Participación del Sector Privado (CIPSP) con la responsabilidad de iniciar la privatización de este sector.
(v) El Ministerio de Salud Pública, en el marco regulatorio de agua potable y saneamiento.
(vi) La Comisión del Canal de Panamá y la Autoridad de la Región Interoceánica, responsables de la gestión de los recursos hídricos de la Zona del Canal, que será transferida al dominio panameño en diciembre de 1999.
Las aguas en Panamá son reconocidas como bienes de dominio público del Estado, de aprovechamiento libre y común. La ley de aguas se aplica igualmente a todos los usos y actividades reconocidas. El marco jurídico en materia de recursos hídricos lo integran diversas leyes y códigos (agrario, civil, sanitario, administrativo, etc.) de promulgación anterior a las reformas constitucionales de 1983. La falta de normas técnicas para hacer operativas las leyes (Dto. Ley No. 35 Ley de Aguas, 1996, Dto. No. 39 Ley Forestal, 1996), la dispersión y repetición de normas, y la ausencia de reglamentación para diversos usos del agua (industriales, comerciales, navegación fluvial y otros), ha propiciado la revisión y modernización de la Ley de Aguas. Igualmente, los procesos de privatización en marcha introducen cambios a las leyes orgánicas de las instituciones como el IDAAN en agua potable y el IRHE en energía eléctrica.
Los derechos de agua registrados y autorizados por la ANAM son concesiones que varían desde un año (permiso temporal) o cinco años (permiso transitorio) hasta la concesión permanente, no siendo transferibles a excepción de las concesiones de uso en riego, las cuales van unidas a la propiedad de la tierra. En los sistemas de riego de uso colectivo, los usuarios en su mayoría, no son propietarios y sólo tienen derechos posesorios de la tierra. Esta situación mantiene una inseguridad jurídica que el MIDA trata de resolver a través del Plan Nacional de Titulación.
Tendencias en la gestión de los recusos hídricos
Existe un ambiente proclive en el gobierno e iniciativa privada hacia la modernización del Subsector Recursos Hídricos, hacia la definición de una política hídrica [privatizacion] y hacia la creación de una autoridad nacional a cargo de la administración y protección del agua, debidamente respaldada por un marco legal [neoliberal] moderno y eficiente.
A pesar de la abundancia de recursos hídricos y de su bajo porcentaje de utilización, el deterioro que experimentan algunas cuencas densamente pobladas, ha hecho que las autoridades revisen las normas de calidad [prohibir clorina y fluoruro] y control de los vertidos urbanos, industriales y agrícolas. La ANAM está próxima a emitir el Plan General del Ambiente.
El Plan Nacional de Riego, finalizado en 1997 y en proceso de consulta, establece cuatro elementos para la política del gobierno y sus programas:
(i) Promover, facilitar y establecer normas para el desarrollo agrícola bajo riego en vez de operar sistemas de riego estatales.
(ii) Facilitar y participar en inversiones de infraestructura de riego como socio del sector privado. Se prevé la modernización de seis sistemas de riego de uso colectivo (6 325 ha), la construcción de tres proyectos integrales de riego moderno y agroexportación (4 236 ha) y la posible ejecución de otros proyectos de riego (52 898 ha) en los años 2000-2002.
(iii) Mejorar los incentivos para la inversión privada en riego a través de cambios en el entorno legal e institucional. Preparar una nueva ley del agua, una nueva ley de fomento del riego y el establecimiento de una Comisión Nacional del Riego.
(iv) Asegurar que el desarrollo de los recursos hídricos para riego sea sostenible y compatible con la conservación del medio ambiente.
No hay un ente específico a cargo del riego y la Unidad de Desarrollo Agrícola del MIDA se dedica a la supervisión y seguimiento de los nuevos proyectos. Entre las estrategias y políticas del subsector riego se planifica el uso del riego localizado para fomentar la agricultura intensiva de hortalizas a pequeña escala; la transferencia de los sistemas de riego estatales a las asociaciones de usuarios; facilitar el acceso al crédito y la capacitación en técnicas modernas de riego. Como paso previo a la transferencia, se ha propuesto una inversión para la rehabilitación y modernización de los sistemas por un monto de $EE.UU. 8,6 millones.
El Gobierno tiene en proceso las privatizaciones del IRHE y de los servicios de agua potable del IDAAN, afrontando serios problemas sociales por la falta del conocimiento popular de los criterios de concesión aplicados a dichos procesos. Se espera mayor rendimiento y eficiencia con la participación del sector privado en la prestación de dichos servicios.
Existe además, una razón social para promover el desarrollo del riego en el Arco Seco: la tendencia a la migración de su población hacia los bosques tropicales, con sus tierras vírgenes, y hacia las pendientes fértiles de las partes altas de Chiriquí con la consecuente destrucción de los bosques tropicales y la degradación de los recursos naturales. Se espera que de la implementación de programas de riego en esta zona económicamente deprimida, con problemas de tenencia de tierra y con reducida capacidad de cultivar por falta de agua, disminuya la tendencia actual a la migración.
Principales fuentes de información:
ANA. 1998. Ley general del ambiente de la República de Panamá, número 41. Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente.
DEC. 1998. Panamá en cifras 1993-1997. Dirección de Estadística y Censo.
DEC. 1998. Superficie sembrada y cosechada en 1997-1998. Dirección de Estadística y Censo.
IRHE. 1997. Recursos hidráulicos de Panamá. Instituto de Recursos Hídricos de y Electrificación.
IDAAN. 1998. Concesión del servicio público de agua potable y alcantarillado de Panamá. Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales, preparado por PARIBAS.
MDA/BID. 1997. Plan Nacional de Riego. Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario de la República de Panamá y Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo.
Formato para imprimir
© FAO, NRL (2008)
Preguntas o comentarios? aquastat@fao.org
Fuente: FAO-Forestry. Cláusula de exención de responsabilidad.
Version: 2000
Geografía y Población
La República de Panamá se localiza entre los 7° y 9° N de latitud y los 77° y 83° W de longitud. Con una superficie de 75 517 km2 es el país más estrecho del istmo centroamericano. Cuenta con un litoral de 1 700 km con el Océano Pacífico y 1 288 km con el Océano Atlántico. Limita al norte con el Mar Caribe, al sur con el Océano Pacífico, al este con Colombia y al oeste con Costa Rica. El país se divide en 9 provincias y 4 comarcas indígenas.
Su orografía la configura el corredor montañoso que atraviesa el país de oeste a este: cordillera de Chiriquí, sierra de Tabasará, cordillera Central, cordillera de San Blas y serranía de El Darién, dividiendo las aguas entre la vertiente del Océano Pacífico (70 por ciento del territorio) y la del Mar Caribe (30 por ciento). De los 7,55 millones de ha del territorio, 1,7 millones de ha se consideran área cultivable y 4,6 millones de ha áreas para pastos y uso forestal.
El censo de 1990 registró 2 329 329 habitantes con proyección media para el año 2000 de 2 855 703 hab. La tasa de crecimiento es del 2,6 por ciento anual. El Producto Interior Bruto (PIB) de Panamá en 1997 fue de 8 800 millones de $EE.UU., del cual el sector agrícola representó el 7,1 por ciento.
Clima y Recursos Hídricos
Clima
El clima de Panamá es típicamente tropical, influenciado por ambos océanos y por los desplazamientos de la ZCI que dan origen a las altas precipitaciones. Se caracteriza por tener temperaturas moderadamente altas, constantes durante todo el año con promedio de 27°C y débil oscilación térmica diaria. La humedad relativa es alta, del orden del 75 por ciento, y la evapotranspiración potencial anual promedio es 2 000 mm. Existen dos estaciones climáticas bien definidas: la seca y la lluviosa. La estación seca se extiende desde mediados de diciembre hasta abril y la lluviosa, de mayo a diciembre.
La siguiente Tabla resume las características climáticas de Panamá. El clima tropical húmedo y muy húmedo es propio de las zonas costeras de ambos océanos, mientras que el templado húmedo y muy húmedo es propido de las tierras altas. En la provincia de Coclé y península de Azuero (provincias Herrera y Los Santos), definida como el Arco Seco, se tiene clima tropical seco con precipitaciones anuales inferiores a los 1 500 mm (las menores del país), y escasez de aguas superficiales y subterráneas en comparación con el resto del territorio. La precipitación media anual de Panamá es la mayor del istmo centroamericano, variando entre los 1 100 y los 5 500 mm, con una media anual de 3 094 mm/año .
Características climáticas de Panamá.
Tipo de clima: Templado humedo y muy humedo.
Localización: Llanuras costerasy colinas del Atlánticoy Pacífico entre 0 y 700 m
Temperaturamedia (°C): Entre 28 y 34 Grados Centigrado
Precipitaciónmedia anual (mm)
Llanuras costerasy colinas del Atlánticoy Pacífico entre 0 y 700 m
Entre2 600 y 5 500
Entre18 y 20
Entre4 000 y 7 000
Tropical Seco
Península de Azuero
Entre28 y 34
Entre1 000 y 1 500
Recursos Hídricos
En Panamá existen 51 cuencas hidrográficas, 18 en la Vertiente del Atlántico y 33 en la del Pacífico. Por su orografía y la estrechez de su territorio, la mayoría de los ríos son de corta longitud y descargan perpendicularmente al litoral costero. El volumen medio de precipitación anual es del orden de 233,6 km3, y la escorrentía media superficial es de 144,1 km3/año, siendo el 60 por ciento aportado por la vertiente del Pacífico y el resto por la vertiente del Atlántico. Las cuencas con mayor abundancia de agua y potencial para su aprovechamiento son las de los ríos Changuinola-Teribe, Guarumo, Cricamola, Calovebora y Veraguas en la vertiente Atlántica y en la vertiente del Pacífico los ríos Chiriquí, Fonseca, Tabasará y San Pablo.
El río Chagres, con los lagos artificiales de Alajuela y Gatún, son las principales fuentes en la regulación del escurrimiento de navegación para la operación anual de la vía interoceánica del Canal de Panamá (caudal mínimo 2,8 km3/año).
El volumen de agua subterránea aprovechable se estima en 3,31 km3/año, el 87 por ciento en la vertiente del Pacífico y el 13 por ciento en la vertiente del Atlántico, siendo la región del Arco Seco la de uso más intensivo para agua potable y riego. La calidad de dicha agua se considera buena para el riego y el abastecimiento. No se realiza un control sobre la perforación de pozos ni sobre los volúmenes de extracción.
Panamá sólo tiene cuencas compartidas con Costa Rica en los ríos Sixaola y Teribe. Existe un convenio para la regulación y aprovechamiento del río Sixaola, como parte del Parque Internacional La Amistad, considerado área protegida binacional y Reserva de la Biosfera. La frontera con Colombia está constituida en su mayor parte por las divisorias de las cuencas de los ríos Tuira y Balsas y no existen transferencias de agua significativas.
Lagos y Embalses
Existen en el país cinco embalses:
Gatún (427 km2, 5,22 km3),
Alajuela (41,4 km2, 0,56 km3),
Bayano (254 km2, 3,14 km3),
Fortuna (3,7 km2, 0,06 km3) y
Yeguada (1,1 km2, 0,02 km3)
con una capacidad total de embalse cercana a los 9 km3.
El potencial hidroeléctrico práctico nacional se calcula en 3 568 Mw (31 247 Gwh, con un 56 por ciento en la vertiente del Pacífico). Las cuencas de mayor potencial son: Changuinola (3 600 Gwh) Cricamola-Calovebora-Veraguas (7 425 Gwh), Tabasará-Fonseca (7 418 Gwh) y Chiriquí (4 290 Gwh). En 1993, La capacidad instalada total de generación eléctrica sumó 912,4 MW, de las cuales 551 MW eran de plantas hidroeléctricas. Las mayores son La Fortuna 300 MW, Bayano 150 MW y Los Valles 48 MW. La generación bruta de electricidad en 1997 fue de 4 050 GWh, de los cuales 2 902 GWh eran de orígen hidroeléctrico y 1 148 GWh de orígen térmico.
Extracción de Agua
No existen datos de extracción de agua para los diferentes sectores. Sin embargo, la figura 1 muestra estimaciones de dicha información en el año 1990. El Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales IDAAN abastece la Zona Metropolitana (provincias Panamá y Colón), provincia de Chiriquí, y las provincias Centrales (Herrera, Coclé, Los Santos y Veraguas). El abastecimiento de agua potable utiliza fundamentalmente aguas superficiales, que en el país son de buena calidad. En 1997 el volumen de agua de abastecimiento e industrial fue de 461 millones de m3, del cual 380 millones de m3 fueron producidos y 81 millones de m3 fueron comprados. El IDAAN compra agua en bloque a la planta potabilizadora de Mirafolres, la cual es de propiedad y operada por la Comisión del Canal de Panamá, que es la entidad federal de los Estados Unidos de América de la administración y operación del canal de Panamá hasta el 31 de diciembre de 1999, fecha en la cual la administración y operación del Canal será asumida por la entidad denominada Autoridad del Canal de Panamá, perteneciente a la República de Panamá.
Figura. 1. Extracción de agua por sectores en 1990. Extracción total del agua: 1,5 km3/año
En el ámbito nacional, las plantas de tratamiento de aguas servidas son escasas, excepto en ciertas áreas de la ciudad de Panamá que realizan un tratamiento primario a las aguas residuales, antes de descargarlas al mar. En algunas plantas, los caudales de diseño han sido superados por el aumento de la población servida, y en otras, la falta de mantenimiento ocasiona una operación deficientemente. La descarga de aguas residuales sin tratamiento es el principal origen de la contaminación que afecta a la Bahía de Panamá. Los caudales de retorno se estiman en 394 millones de m3/año, con una cobertura de alcantarillados del 53 por ciento de la población.
Desarrollo del riego y el drenaje
Existen aproximadamente 270 000 ha con suelos aptos para el riego, la mayor parte del área situada en Chiriquí y el Arco Seco. No obstante, en base a la disponibilidad de aguas la estimación de dicho parámetro se reduce a 186 897 ha y a 71 673 ha considerando sólo el uso de aguas superficiales, en base a los caudales mínimos, sin la construcción de ninguna presa.
El riego se inició en Panamá en 1920 con las plantaciones de banano, aumentándose el área regada a mitad del siglo, con el cultivo de la caña de azúcar. La participación del Estado comenzó en 1960 con un énfasis especial en la región del Arco Seco. En 1970 existían bajo riego 22 300 ha y en los años 80 se llegó a las 37 000 ha. En 1990, con el desarrollo de 130 pequeños proyectos, el área bajo riego alcanzó 41 000 ha, beneficiando a 1000 familias. Los productores de Azuero y Cocle promovieron en 1992 y 1993 la utilización del riego, como consecuencia de los efectos de la sequía experimentada en dicha época. No obstante, alrededor de 7 000 ha dejaron de ser regadas entre 1990 y 1995, la mayoría de las cuales eran parte de sistemas de riego público y estatales. Esto fue consecuencia de la recesión económica al inicio de la década y del deterioro y posterior abandono de las explotaciones agrícolas públicas. Desde 1995 se renovó el interés por modernizar la producción agrícola y el incremento de la productividad, promoviéndose la integración de los agricultores en los mercados internacionales. En 1996 se formó la Dirección Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (DINDA) del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA), destinada a apoyar la reactivación del riego en el país y se dió paso a la formulación del Plan Nacional de Riego y Drenaje.
En 1997, la superficie equipada para el riego era de 34 626 ha y la superficie regada fue de 27 886 ha. El área principal de riego está localizada en las provinicias de Chiriquí, Veraguas, Coclé, Herrera y Los Santos (figura 2). Las últimas tres provincias en conjunto forman el Arco Seco en la costa del Pacífico, con un promedio de 25 mm/mes en los meses de verano.
Figura. 2. Superficie regada en el sector público y privado por provincias en 1997. Total: 27 886 ha. Las provincias no mencionadas no disponen de riego.
Las diferencias entre áreas regadas y su extensión regable se debe a la falta de cultura de riego en algunos agricultores, al abandono del riego por deterioro de la infraestructura de los sistemas, a los altos costos de rehabilitación y otros factores económicos que indujeron a los agricultores en años pasados, a cambiar su actividad hacia la ganadería. En los últimos años, a través de los proyectos desarrollados por el Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA), se está invirtiendo el proceso gracias a mejores precios de mercado y la concienciación en el uso racional del agua y suelo.
La superficie regada se puede dividir en sistemas de riego púbico y privado. La superficie equipada de riego público en 1997 era de 9 450 ha pero la superficie regada era de sólo 2 710 ha. Asímismo ésta se divide en cuatro sistemas de riego público (Lajas con superficie regable de 1 200 ha y sin regar, El Caño con superficie regable de 1 000 ha y regada de 350 ha, La Herradura con superficie regable de 500 ha y regada de 250 ha, y El Salto con superficie regable de 150 ha y regada de 75 ha) construidos y operados por el estado para el uso colectivo de agricultores y dos empresas estatales (Ingenio La Victoria con superficie regable de 6 500 ha y regada 1 985 ha y el INA con superficie regable de 100 ha y regada 50 ha). Los cuatro sistemas de riego público dependen de aguas superficiales, ya sea directamente de bocatomas en los ríos o por bombeo de éstos. Todos los sistemas, a excepción de El Salto, son sistemas de riego por gravedad produciendo arroz. El Salto es un sistema de riego a presión que utiliza aspersión y riego localizado para la producción de cultivos hortícolas.
El sector privado domina la superficie bajo riego. En 1997 se tenían 25 175 ha, es decir el 90 por ciento de la superficie bajo riego en el país. Coclé es la provincia más importante en términos de sistemas de riego privado con más del 55 por ciento del total, seguido por Chiriquí con 35 por ciento. Aproximadamente, el 30 por ciento del área privada está regada por sistemas modernos de aspersión o riego localizado. En la provincia de Chiriquí domina el uso de la tecnología moderna con el 76 por ciento de la superficie regada por aspersión. El riego localizado se concentra en el Arco Seco con 553 ha sembradas para cultivos de exportación.
La figura 3 muestra las técnicas de riego utilizadas en 1997: el 68 por ciento por superficie, el 30 por ciento por aspersión y el 2 por ciento restante por riego localizado. La figura 4 muestra el predominio del uso de agua superficial con respecto al agua subterránea en los sistemas de riego.
Figura. 3. Técnicas de riego en Panamá en 1997
El cobro adoptado del agua es 20 $EE.UU./ha y por cultivo, valor que no cubre los costos reales de operación y mantenimiento, que resultan subsidiados en buena parte. Los costos de operación y mantenimiento reales en 1997 de los sistemas de riego públicos fueron de 28 $EE.UU./ha en El Caño, de 17,1 $EE.UU./ha en La Herradura y de 124 $EE.UU./ha en El Salto. Los costos de rehabilitación que se están llevando a cabo en algunos sistemas de riego público oscilan entre los 1 780 $EE.UU./ha y los 3 890 $EE.UU./ha.
Figura. 4. Origen de las aguas de riego en Panamá
La figura 5 muestra la distribución de los usuarios del riego en Panamá en 1997. Los usuarios de los sistemas en su mayoría son propietarios de la tierra. Sin embargo, existen graves problemas de titulación de la tierra. Según el censo de 1990, en el 68 por ciento de las explotaciones agropecuarias los productores no cuentan con título de propiedad, el 31 por ciento cuentan con título y el resto están en régimen de arrendamiento. Por ejemplo, muchas de las tierras agrícolas en la provincia de Los Santos pertenecen a ganaderos y éstas son arrendadas a los productores de cultivos de exportación, como por ejemplo el tomate o el melón. La incertidumbre sobre la tenencia de la tierra ha limitado los incentivos y por ende las inversiones en producción, mantenimiento de las tierras e infraestructura.
Figura. 5. Número de usuarios en las áreas bajo riego en 1997.
El sector agrario representa casi la mitad del valor de todas las exportaciones y absorbe una quinta parte de la fuerza laboral. Los principales cultivos bajo riego son los tradicionales (caña de azúcar, arroz y banano) tal como muestra la figura 6. Existen también hortalizas y frutas para consumo interno, y cultivos no tradicionales, como la palma africana y el coco para exportación. El gobierno promueve actualmente la diversificación a estos últimos cultivos.
Figura. 6. Cultivos principales en la superficie bajo riego en 1997 en Panamá. Superficie bajo riego cosechada (1997): 27 886 ha.
En Panamá no se tienen problemas de salinización de suelos, y los proyectos de drenaje y anegamiento no son prioritarios debido a la disponibilidad de tierras faltas de irrigación.
Entorno institucional
El manejo de Recursos Hídricos lo asumen según competencia:
(i) El Instituto de Recursos Hidráulicos y Electrificación (IRHE) a cargo del manejo de cuencas y generación hidroeléctrica (en vías de privatización en ocho empresas). Existen perspectivas para la creación de un nuevo Servicio Nacional de Hidrología y Meteorología , que asuma las funciones en recursos hídricos del IRHE.
(ii) El Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario (MIDA) y la Dirección Nacional de Desarrollo Agrícola (DINDA), ahora entidad de apoyo y promoción agrícola. Se encargan del manejo y conservación de suelos y la transferencia de los sistemas de riego estatales a los usuarios.
(iii) La Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente (ANAM) de reciente creación (antiguo Instituto de Recursos Naturales Renovables INRENARE). Es la responsable de la administración del agua, medio ambiente y desarrollo de recursos naturales renovables, además del otorgamiento de concesiones de uso del agua, incluyendo el riego.
(iv) El Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales (IDAAN), limitado a la operación y explotación de los acueductos y alcantarillados (poblaciones con más de 1 500 habitantes). No obstante, se ha creado una Comisión de Incorporación de la Participación del Sector Privado (CIPSP) con la responsabilidad de iniciar la privatización de este sector.
(v) El Ministerio de Salud Pública, en el marco regulatorio de agua potable y saneamiento.
(vi) La Comisión del Canal de Panamá y la Autoridad de la Región Interoceánica, responsables de la gestión de los recursos hídricos de la Zona del Canal, que será transferida al dominio panameño en diciembre de 1999.
Las aguas en Panamá son reconocidas como bienes de dominio público del Estado, de aprovechamiento libre y común. La ley de aguas se aplica igualmente a todos los usos y actividades reconocidas. El marco jurídico en materia de recursos hídricos lo integran diversas leyes y códigos (agrario, civil, sanitario, administrativo, etc.) de promulgación anterior a las reformas constitucionales de 1983. La falta de normas técnicas para hacer operativas las leyes (Dto. Ley No. 35 Ley de Aguas, 1996, Dto. No. 39 Ley Forestal, 1996), la dispersión y repetición de normas, y la ausencia de reglamentación para diversos usos del agua (industriales, comerciales, navegación fluvial y otros), ha propiciado la revisión y modernización de la Ley de Aguas. Igualmente, los procesos de privatización en marcha introducen cambios a las leyes orgánicas de las instituciones como el IDAAN en agua potable y el IRHE en energía eléctrica.
Los derechos de agua registrados y autorizados por la ANAM son concesiones que varían desde un año (permiso temporal) o cinco años (permiso transitorio) hasta la concesión permanente, no siendo transferibles a excepción de las concesiones de uso en riego, las cuales van unidas a la propiedad de la tierra. En los sistemas de riego de uso colectivo, los usuarios en su mayoría, no son propietarios y sólo tienen derechos posesorios de la tierra. Esta situación mantiene una inseguridad jurídica que el MIDA trata de resolver a través del Plan Nacional de Titulación.
Tendencias en la gestión de los recusos hídricos
Existe un ambiente proclive en el gobierno e iniciativa privada hacia la modernización del Subsector Recursos Hídricos, hacia la definición de una política hídrica [privatizacion] y hacia la creación de una autoridad nacional a cargo de la administración y protección del agua, debidamente respaldada por un marco legal [neoliberal] moderno y eficiente.
A pesar de la abundancia de recursos hídricos y de su bajo porcentaje de utilización, el deterioro que experimentan algunas cuencas densamente pobladas, ha hecho que las autoridades revisen las normas de calidad [prohibir clorina y fluoruro] y control de los vertidos urbanos, industriales y agrícolas. La ANAM está próxima a emitir el Plan General del Ambiente.
El Plan Nacional de Riego, finalizado en 1997 y en proceso de consulta, establece cuatro elementos para la política del gobierno y sus programas:
(i) Promover, facilitar y establecer normas para el desarrollo agrícola bajo riego en vez de operar sistemas de riego estatales.
(ii) Facilitar y participar en inversiones de infraestructura de riego como socio del sector privado. Se prevé la modernización de seis sistemas de riego de uso colectivo (6 325 ha), la construcción de tres proyectos integrales de riego moderno y agroexportación (4 236 ha) y la posible ejecución de otros proyectos de riego (52 898 ha) en los años 2000-2002.
(iii) Mejorar los incentivos para la inversión privada en riego a través de cambios en el entorno legal e institucional. Preparar una nueva ley del agua, una nueva ley de fomento del riego y el establecimiento de una Comisión Nacional del Riego.
(iv) Asegurar que el desarrollo de los recursos hídricos para riego sea sostenible y compatible con la conservación del medio ambiente.
No hay un ente específico a cargo del riego y la Unidad de Desarrollo Agrícola del MIDA se dedica a la supervisión y seguimiento de los nuevos proyectos. Entre las estrategias y políticas del subsector riego se planifica el uso del riego localizado para fomentar la agricultura intensiva de hortalizas a pequeña escala; la transferencia de los sistemas de riego estatales a las asociaciones de usuarios; facilitar el acceso al crédito y la capacitación en técnicas modernas de riego. Como paso previo a la transferencia, se ha propuesto una inversión para la rehabilitación y modernización de los sistemas por un monto de $EE.UU. 8,6 millones.
El Gobierno tiene en proceso las privatizaciones del IRHE y de los servicios de agua potable del IDAAN, afrontando serios problemas sociales por la falta del conocimiento popular de los criterios de concesión aplicados a dichos procesos. Se espera mayor rendimiento y eficiencia con la participación del sector privado en la prestación de dichos servicios.
Existe además, una razón social para promover el desarrollo del riego en el Arco Seco: la tendencia a la migración de su población hacia los bosques tropicales, con sus tierras vírgenes, y hacia las pendientes fértiles de las partes altas de Chiriquí con la consecuente destrucción de los bosques tropicales y la degradación de los recursos naturales. Se espera que de la implementación de programas de riego en esta zona económicamente deprimida, con problemas de tenencia de tierra y con reducida capacidad de cultivar por falta de agua, disminuya la tendencia actual a la migración.
Principales fuentes de información:
ANA. 1998. Ley general del ambiente de la República de Panamá, número 41. Autoridad Nacional del Ambiente.
DEC. 1998. Panamá en cifras 1993-1997. Dirección de Estadística y Censo.
DEC. 1998. Superficie sembrada y cosechada en 1997-1998. Dirección de Estadística y Censo.
IRHE. 1997. Recursos hidráulicos de Panamá. Instituto de Recursos Hídricos de y Electrificación.
IDAAN. 1998. Concesión del servicio público de agua potable y alcantarillado de Panamá. Instituto de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Nacionales, preparado por PARIBAS.
MDA/BID. 1997. Plan Nacional de Riego. Ministerio de Desarrollo Agropecuario de la República de Panamá y Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo.
Formato para imprimir
© FAO, NRL (2008)
Preguntas o comentarios? aquastat@fao.org
martes, 13 de mayo de 2008
GIS EXPLAINED - Terms and Defenitions
GIS EXPLAINED - Terms and Definitions
The following are Wikipedia entries that should help you learn more about GIS.
Aerial photography
Atlas
Cartography
Contour line
Digital elevation model - DEM
Digital Line Graph - DLG
Digital Orthophoto Quadrangle - DOQ
Digital Raster Graphic - DRG
FIPS place code
FIPS state code
Geographic information system - GIS
Geography
Geologic map
Geospatial
GeoTIFF
GIS file formats
Grass GIS
Global positioning system - GPS
Historical geographic information system - HGIS
Landsat program
Latitude
Longitude
Map
Map projection
Orthophoto
Public Participation GIS
Remote sensing
Spatial analysis
Spatial Data Transfer Standard - SDTS
Topo map
Topographic map
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing - TIGER, TIGER/Line
U.S. postal abbreviations
United States Geological Survey - USGS
Universal Transverse Mercator - UTM
Check our What is GIS? page for more about learning GIS.
Thanks,
The following are Wikipedia entries that should help you learn more about GIS.
Aerial photography
Atlas
Cartography
Contour line
Digital elevation model - DEM
Digital Line Graph - DLG
Digital Orthophoto Quadrangle - DOQ
Digital Raster Graphic - DRG
FIPS place code
FIPS state code
Geographic information system - GIS
Geography
Geologic map
Geospatial
GeoTIFF
GIS file formats
Grass GIS
Global positioning system - GPS
Historical geographic information system - HGIS
Landsat program
Latitude
Longitude
Map
Map projection
Orthophoto
Public Participation GIS
Remote sensing
Spatial analysis
Spatial Data Transfer Standard - SDTS
Topo map
Topographic map
Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing - TIGER, TIGER/Line
U.S. postal abbreviations
United States Geological Survey - USGS
Universal Transverse Mercator - UTM
Check our What is GIS? page for more about learning GIS.
Thanks,
Learn2Map Free GIS Tutorial
Learn2Map Free GIS Tutorial
Are you new to GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and mapping? Would you like to learn what it is all about and learn how to create your own maps? Would you like to begin a new professional career? Our online Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas is designed to give you a quick-start introduction to the basics of GIS. For a brief introduction to GIS, what it is, and how it is used, click here and then return to this page to learn more about how you will benefit from using this tutorial.
In just a few minutes you can begin to learn how to create sophisticated maps. The easy-to-follow step-by-step distance learning online tutorial is based on free resources. There is nothing to purchase. All you need to begin mapping today is the Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas.
Why Learn GIS?
Most of us use maps frequently. We usually use them to figure out how to get from here to there. Without simple street maps this relatively easy task would be much more difficult. We would have to read instructions, line-by-line, and sort of imagine the geography described in the instructions and superimpose that with what we see as we progress to our destination.
We have probably all done this. Maps make this task so much easier. But maps are more than a navigational aid. They can show us relationships that we could never see by pouring through pages of data. Maps can provide answers to questions not found elsewhere and make you ask questions you never would have thought to ask. Maps bring raw and often boring data to life.
There are applications for maps and a need for mapmakers in nearly all fields. Some common uses for maps and GIS are to target sales and marketing areas; redraw congressional districts; find the best route between point a and point b; determine the race, ethnicity and income of folks living certain distances from a facility that pollutes the air; locate clusters of families with certain diseases. Others include environmental planning, traffic analysis and much more.
In our work we use GIS to map toxic facilities, air pollution and the like. I got my start doing environmental justice research as an undergraduate at UCSC. I "picked up" my GIS and data skills as I went along as I had no professional training in cartography or GIS and it was not supported in my department. Since then I have done more research and more mapping for on- and offline projects. I have provided more background below if you are interested.
I am sure that you will have many more ideas for maps. Maybe some that have never been applied before. It really is a limitless field and there is yet so much to do. Once you get the tutorial and work through it, drop me a line and let me know how you are doing. If you have a specific project in mind, I would love to hear about it. Once it's done you may want to list it on our Global Environmental Risk Atlas website. You are more than welcome to do so. Please read on to find out what the tutorial includes and what you will learn.
What You Will Learn
Our easy-to-follow step-by-step Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas will show you how to:
Download free map layers
Create a GIS project with ArcExplorer® (free)
Open and view the layers of GIS project
Navigate and query your maps
Change colors and attributes
Add additional layers and create a map project (layers include streets, highways, cities, census tracts and data, school districts, rivers and streams and much more)
Distribute your maps to others
Gain access to free maps and resources.
Find free GIS and GPS tutorials.
And more
Please note that the Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas is based on free resources. You will not pay anything additional to learn how to use the program or for any maps.
What You Will Get - ESRI ArcExplorer & Shapefiles
Our Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas provides access to a comprehensive library of maps. The library includes an easy-to-use mapping program (ESRI®'s free ArcExplorer®) and a full suite of map layers. No previous GIS or mapping experience is required! Layers for the entire U.S. include:
States
Counties
Highways
Railroads
Airports
And many more
We also include sample layers for an individual county (full instructions are provided that show you how to obtain these layers for any county for free). These include:
Census tracts and blocks
School districts
Congressional districts
Streets
Streams and rivers
Water bodies
And more
GIS Skills are in High Demand
GIS and mapping professionals are in high demand and are very well paid. We'll get you started. Learn from our experience now! (Click here to see a few of the projects that we have done with GIS).
GIS Background
Offering this map tutorial may seem like a simple thing, but for me it is very gratifying. It is one of the main reasons I went online with mapcruzin.com in 1995 (I think I actually got around to registering the domain name in 1996).
MapCruzin began very simply with interactive toxic maps of my county - the Santa Cruz TRI. Folks could zoom in, pan around and click on facilities and get information about current and past Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) releases and transfers. These were the first interactive U.S.- based toxic maps on the net (I was inspired by FOE UK who was the first in the world!).
My need to do this grew out of my frustration as a researcher. I found that very few people had a clue about TRI or what it could tell them about the risks posed by industrial facilities in their communities. Outreach, at the time at least, really "sucked." I hoped that my project would encourage others. It has, but not as much as I had hoped.
One "spin-off" was my being hired by Environmental Defense to do the first 2 years of the mapping interface for their Chemical Scorecard. The scorecard mapping project was based on our Santa Cruz TRI and expanded to cover the entire nation. In fact, the demo used to raise the funding for scorecard was a slightly modified version of our Santa Cruz TRI. This was all great, but it still didn't "get it" for me. Showing folks maps of toxic facilities on the web was one thing, helping them learn how to do it themselves was something else.
I began by offering free map layers. Of course, if someone didn't already have a GIS program and the expertise, the map layers wouldn't do them much good.
A key piece fell into place awhile ago. ESRI® started giving away their free GIS viewer, ArcExplorer®. It is a great tool to use to begin learning GIS and I have based my tutorial and atlas on it.
This does not mean that you then have to get their ArcView® program to do 'real' GIS. In most cases, you'll get quite a ways with ArcExplorer® and if you need to move up, there are alternatives. (In my work, I've always used Maptitude because it's faster, cheaper and has more free data than all the rest). But then again, ArcView®, though expensive is often provided to nonprofits free of charge. You will have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages to determine what is best for you.
Free Instant Access
The tutorial is FREE. To get started, signup below so that we can advise you of updates and occasional changes. We promise that your email address is secure and we will not share it with anyone else. You will receive a message in a few seconds that directs you to the download page. Thanks.
Are you new to GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and mapping? Would you like to learn what it is all about and learn how to create your own maps? Would you like to begin a new professional career? Our online Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas is designed to give you a quick-start introduction to the basics of GIS. For a brief introduction to GIS, what it is, and how it is used, click here and then return to this page to learn more about how you will benefit from using this tutorial.
In just a few minutes you can begin to learn how to create sophisticated maps. The easy-to-follow step-by-step distance learning online tutorial is based on free resources. There is nothing to purchase. All you need to begin mapping today is the Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas.
Why Learn GIS?
Most of us use maps frequently. We usually use them to figure out how to get from here to there. Without simple street maps this relatively easy task would be much more difficult. We would have to read instructions, line-by-line, and sort of imagine the geography described in the instructions and superimpose that with what we see as we progress to our destination.
We have probably all done this. Maps make this task so much easier. But maps are more than a navigational aid. They can show us relationships that we could never see by pouring through pages of data. Maps can provide answers to questions not found elsewhere and make you ask questions you never would have thought to ask. Maps bring raw and often boring data to life.
There are applications for maps and a need for mapmakers in nearly all fields. Some common uses for maps and GIS are to target sales and marketing areas; redraw congressional districts; find the best route between point a and point b; determine the race, ethnicity and income of folks living certain distances from a facility that pollutes the air; locate clusters of families with certain diseases. Others include environmental planning, traffic analysis and much more.
In our work we use GIS to map toxic facilities, air pollution and the like. I got my start doing environmental justice research as an undergraduate at UCSC. I "picked up" my GIS and data skills as I went along as I had no professional training in cartography or GIS and it was not supported in my department. Since then I have done more research and more mapping for on- and offline projects. I have provided more background below if you are interested.
I am sure that you will have many more ideas for maps. Maybe some that have never been applied before. It really is a limitless field and there is yet so much to do. Once you get the tutorial and work through it, drop me a line and let me know how you are doing. If you have a specific project in mind, I would love to hear about it. Once it's done you may want to list it on our Global Environmental Risk Atlas website. You are more than welcome to do so. Please read on to find out what the tutorial includes and what you will learn.
What You Will Learn
Our easy-to-follow step-by-step Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas will show you how to:
Download free map layers
Create a GIS project with ArcExplorer® (free)
Open and view the layers of GIS project
Navigate and query your maps
Change colors and attributes
Add additional layers and create a map project (layers include streets, highways, cities, census tracts and data, school districts, rivers and streams and much more)
Distribute your maps to others
Gain access to free maps and resources.
Find free GIS and GPS tutorials.
And more
Please note that the Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas is based on free resources. You will not pay anything additional to learn how to use the program or for any maps.
What You Will Get - ESRI ArcExplorer & Shapefiles
Our Learn2Map™ Tutorial and Atlas provides access to a comprehensive library of maps. The library includes an easy-to-use mapping program (ESRI®'s free ArcExplorer®) and a full suite of map layers. No previous GIS or mapping experience is required! Layers for the entire U.S. include:
States
Counties
Highways
Railroads
Airports
And many more
We also include sample layers for an individual county (full instructions are provided that show you how to obtain these layers for any county for free). These include:
Census tracts and blocks
School districts
Congressional districts
Streets
Streams and rivers
Water bodies
And more
GIS Skills are in High Demand
GIS and mapping professionals are in high demand and are very well paid. We'll get you started. Learn from our experience now! (Click here to see a few of the projects that we have done with GIS).
GIS Background
Offering this map tutorial may seem like a simple thing, but for me it is very gratifying. It is one of the main reasons I went online with mapcruzin.com in 1995 (I think I actually got around to registering the domain name in 1996).
MapCruzin began very simply with interactive toxic maps of my county - the Santa Cruz TRI. Folks could zoom in, pan around and click on facilities and get information about current and past Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) releases and transfers. These were the first interactive U.S.- based toxic maps on the net (I was inspired by FOE UK who was the first in the world!).
My need to do this grew out of my frustration as a researcher. I found that very few people had a clue about TRI or what it could tell them about the risks posed by industrial facilities in their communities. Outreach, at the time at least, really "sucked." I hoped that my project would encourage others. It has, but not as much as I had hoped.
One "spin-off" was my being hired by Environmental Defense to do the first 2 years of the mapping interface for their Chemical Scorecard. The scorecard mapping project was based on our Santa Cruz TRI and expanded to cover the entire nation. In fact, the demo used to raise the funding for scorecard was a slightly modified version of our Santa Cruz TRI. This was all great, but it still didn't "get it" for me. Showing folks maps of toxic facilities on the web was one thing, helping them learn how to do it themselves was something else.
I began by offering free map layers. Of course, if someone didn't already have a GIS program and the expertise, the map layers wouldn't do them much good.
A key piece fell into place awhile ago. ESRI® started giving away their free GIS viewer, ArcExplorer®. It is a great tool to use to begin learning GIS and I have based my tutorial and atlas on it.
This does not mean that you then have to get their ArcView® program to do 'real' GIS. In most cases, you'll get quite a ways with ArcExplorer® and if you need to move up, there are alternatives. (In my work, I've always used Maptitude because it's faster, cheaper and has more free data than all the rest). But then again, ArcView®, though expensive is often provided to nonprofits free of charge. You will have to weigh the advantages and disadvantages to determine what is best for you.
Free Instant Access
The tutorial is FREE. To get started, signup below so that we can advise you of updates and occasional changes. We promise that your email address is secure and we will not share it with anyone else. You will receive a message in a few seconds that directs you to the download page. Thanks.
lunes, 12 de mayo de 2008
Professional Surveyor March 2008 Volume 28 Number 3
Feature: Surveying Goes Underground
John Krause and Andrew Lund
For as long as there have been surveyors and underground utilities, surveyors have been asked to make representations on maps about the lines. Without access to pipe inverts at manholes, they are understandably reluctant to do so. "How can you survey something you can't see?" "You expect me to certify or attest to conditions based on assumptions from records, surface features, and paint markings by others beyond my control?" Often, the surveyor accepts liability to get the project or puts disclaimers on the map the client won't like. Relying on one-call services to depict horizontal locations of buried utilities on maps equates to Russian roulette unless you have a deep understanding of locating equipment. Another problem: You never really know whose hands your maps will end up in, or if the person will read all the notes. Even when you win, litigation is stressful and costs time and money.
But this roulette game may be ending. Thanks to new technologies, it has become possible to survey the unseen underground, and this technology has fallen under the oversight and quality control of the professional surveyor. It's not entirely accurate to call these technologies new. They have, in fact, been around for a while. But not until recently did they assume a form suited to the underground challenges faced by engineers, surveyors, and contractors.
It actually goes back over 40 years … to a college dorm room at the University of Rochester. Not so much the room, but the roommates: Alan Witten and Tony Devaney. They weren't your typical college students; both were considered top pupils of Dr. Emil Wolf, who had just published the (still) seminal text in the field of optics, The Principles of Optics (Macmillan, 1964).
Twenty years later, (now Dr.) Devaney would patent a concept called geophysical diffraction tomography (GDT). Stated simply, GDT involves transmitting a signal through the earth (or water), bouncing it off objects contained therein, receiving the signal with an array of antennas, and processing the (now multiple) signals with complex algorithms. The signals return to each antenna in the array nanoseconds apart, with the slight time difference allowing for 3D triangulation and ultimately visualization of the objects the signal(s) bounced off of. Originally, GDT was applied in acoustic form (signal equals sound).
At the time, Devaney was working for the French petrochemical giant Schlumberger, so exploring for oil was a natural fit as GDT's first commercial use. It is still used for that purpose, albeit on a much grander scale. While Devaney was using GDT to find new oil reserves, Dr. Witten was doing more "fanciful" (read: interesting) things. From visualizing ancient underground cave villages in the Negev desert in Israel to detecting tunnels in the Korean demilitarized zone to imaging sunken galleons off the coast of Madagascar, Dr. Witten put GDT through its paces. Perhaps his most notable application of GDT was in the New Mexico desert in 1989, where he helped unearth Seismosaurus (the "Earth Shaker"), the largest dinosaur on record. "Sam," as he was later nicknamed, would become the logo of the company Witten would ultimately found.
Chance Encounter
This brings us closer to real time. It's 1992, and Dr. Witten is working near Jacksonville, Florida for Oak Ridge National Laboratories, trying to image submerged pipes. By sheer coincidence, he encountered Robert Green, a local utility contractor. As a second-generation contractor, Green was painfully familiar with the problems that arose from not knowing what's down there. He asked Dr. Witten what would prove a pivotal question: "How can we make this geophysical telescope (acoustic GDT) into a geophysical microscope?" When Witten replied, "GPR," proposing to use ground-penetrating radar as the signal, the concept of computer assisted radar tomography (CART) was born.
Soon thereafter, in 1994, the two men formed Witten Technologies in Boston, MA to commercialize GPR-driven GDT. It took the company the remainder of the century to do so, with CART, shortened to RT (radar tomography) for simplicity, debuting around 2001. Along the way, the company received assistance from the Electric Power Research Institute, the Gas Technology Institute, and Consolidated Edison. In fact, ConEd was Witten's first true client, and the first notable RT work was done in lower Manhattan. In a strange twist of fortune, the company scanned the streets around the World Trade Center just prior to 9/11 and then helped ConEd sort through the subsurface spaghetti left in the tragedy's wake.
Since then, the technology has been applied to over 20 million square feet in the United States and abroad.
Since GPR is RT's foundation, an understanding of RT requires some basic GPR knowledge. Featured numerous times in Professional Surveyor Magazine, a typical GPR system involves a single pair of antenna—transmitter and receiver—mounted in a pushcart or attached to a vehicle. The transmitter sends an electromagnetic pulse downward, which bounces off objects and features and returns to the receiver. The curves and ripples in the resulting image(s), once interpreted, reveal the 2D position of certain objects and features. While it has been used effectively in a variety of applications, the inherent subjective interpretation requirement lends it an air of "rocket science." RT has taken GPR from 2D to 3D, eliminating much of this interpretation requirement.
For ease of explanation, radar tomography can be broken down into three separate but interrelated components: hardware, process, and software.
Hardware:
An array (in both 200- and 400-MHz versions) consists of 17 ultra-wideband GPR antennae (9 transmitters and 8 receivers) and a control box that manages the firing of the antennae in a controlled, rapid sequence. The firing sequence can be either timed or triggered by a survey wheel mounted on the array. A multiple array with sufficient distance between the outermost antennas is key to creation of 3D data. The array is contained in a shielded, eight-inch-thick, pool-table-sized box, either front-mounted on a commercial mower chassis or pulled behind a vehicle. Mounted on the array is an adjustable prism pole with a 360-degree prism at the top. A robotic total station tracks the prism (ergo, the array and all the antennas contained therein) at all times in all three planes.
Process:
As the array passes over the ground at about two MPH, it is tracked by a constant laser connection between the total station and prism pole. In addition, the total station and prism pole are used to auto-collect numerous control points. In addition to providing the required degree of geospatial accuracy, these points are also used to stitch passes together to create seamless coverage over large areas. Thousands of multi- aspect (that is, the same spot from multiple angles) 2D GPR images are created for a given project or area. Using a combination of automated and manual software processes, this 2D data is later converted into a 3D data cube.
Software:
The image-processing algorithms act as a mathematical lens, which, much like the lenses in our own eyes, focus indistinguishable optical patterns into recognizable images. In the first phase, the software merges the radar and positioning data to focus the 2D radar echoes into 3D/motion imagery. In the second phase, additional software then analyzes the data cube to create plan-and-profile drawings of all detected lines and features in the standard CAD format(s) used in engineering design and construction.
Florida Shows Early Interest
Besides ConEd in New York, a few other organizations from Witten's home state of Florida took an early interest in the technology. Miami-Dade Water Sewer used RT extensively, ultimately issuing an RFP specifically for radar tomography services. The Florida Department of Transportation, always in search of cost-cutting measures for an ever-expanding slate of highway improvement projects, engaged in an exhaustive three-year pilot study. Sunshine State One Call of Florida, the state's call-before- you-dig center, participated in the study.
The lessons learned from the FDOT pilot study, performed across four different projects totaling roughly two million s/f², were many and varied.
At first, it was a lesson in communication. Witten consisted of scientists who knew they had a good thing but didn't know how to deliver it. FDOT really didn't know what to expect, and Witten didn't know what FDOT expected … kind of like two people who didn't know how to dance learning to dance together. Frustrations ran high on both sides, and the department was close to giving up. Witten hired John Krause, PSM, a 15-year veteran of subsurface utility engineering (SUE), and enlisted the aid of Craig A. Smith and Associates (CAS), a civil engineering, surveying, and SUE firm out of Fort Lauderdale.
Witten had always understood the importance of this data because it provides the user with accurate and contiguous x/ y/z's for the tops of all the lines and objects it "sees." FDOT realized this, too. The disconnect was that neither had any experience blending RT with existing survey, engineering, and SUE practices and processes, then presenting the data in formats familiar to engineers, surveyors, and contractors. In other words, the deliverable format did not meet industry standards and statutory mapping requirements, and neither party knew how to fix it.
With Krause and CAS came this knowledge, ultimately righting the FDOT ship. CAS would become Witten's first licensee. Further complicating the above issue was the fact that FDOT was introducing MicroStation Version 8 about the same time. When the coordinate richness (too many unique x, y, z coordinates) of the RT data crashed the system, CAS' and FDOT's CAD teams worked together to come up with a solution.
The study produced estimates of two-thirds less vacuum excavation and a 10-to-1 return on investment, and two overarching themes became apparent in the long run. First, RT was not the magic bullet some perceived it to be. (This was also an expectations-management lesson for Witten.) While it is a great tool that makes for a more effective toolbox, it doesn't replace any other tools in the box. Like GPR, it can't see everything under all conditions; certain very small lines (i.e. fiber optic) are hard to detect, and certain soil conditions (i.e. high conductivity) obscure the signals. Second, it's only applicable for specific kinds of projects—large, urban ones with lots of underground utilities in the way—so project selection is crucial. Ultimately, FDOT would include RT in its roadway design "bible," the 2007 Plans and Preparations Manual.
Another System Comes Along
Along the way, Witten's scientists recognized some of RT's shortcomings, including limited penetration depth and dependence on soil condition, and developed a "sister" system. While it is based on similar arrayed sensing principles, the Arrayed Inductive Receiver (AIR) system is based on conventional electromagnetic (EM) induction locating principles, where an EM sensor detects the position of the utility lines by detecting the electromagnetic fields created by currents imposed on those lines. Conventional EM-based locating consists of two basic components, a current-inducing mechanism to energize a given utility line and a means of interpreting the behavior of that current with a single EM receiver on the surface to provide horizontal location data for that line. Much like RT is an extension of GPR, the AIR system is an extension of EM.
The AIR system consists of several components. At the heart of it is the array itself, which consists of 16 specially designed triaxial broadband electromagnetic sensors. The broadband sensors allow the recording of many different frequencies simultaneously, allowing the operator to use multiple transmitters for detection of multiple utilities. Equally important is an electrical current source, either direct or indirect. The system employs off-the-shelf EM transmitters for direct current application but uses a specially designed transmitter ball for indirect application.
To capture the information coming from the sensors, a 48- channel (6 receivers x 3 channels and x, y, and z for each) data acquisition system is employed. For positioning, the same total station used by RT is used. Most of the components are housed in the AIR trailer, connected to a laptop in the tow vehicle that records the sensor data. And of course, there's the litany of back-end processing components … data processing, visualization, interpretation, and CAD/GIS mapping software.
In a multi-step software process, the data recorded by the sensors is pre-processed, filtered, and merged with the positioning data to create color imagery that depicts the electromagnetic fields. By modeling the resulting data, precise positions for detected utilities are derived. As with the RT system, the final deliverables of the AIR system include both imagery and underground CAD maps of the located pipes.
Recognizing the ability of both systems to solve the problems posed to the transportation industry and other stakeholders (including the general public) by lack of accurate subsurface utility maps, the U.S. DOT's Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration selected Witten Technologies to create a merged-array system. The project, informally known as the Dual Array Project, had the title Digital Mapping of Buried Pipelines with a Dual Array System. The stated goal: "develop a non-invasive system for detecting, mapping, and inspecting ferrous and plastic pipelines in place using technology that combines and interprets measurements from ground penetrating radar and electromagnetic induction sensors." The purpose of this research was to demonstrate that the RT and AIR systems would provide complementary information that could be merged to create better and more accurate utility maps for both conductive and non-conductive facilities over large areas.
The capabilities of these two systems, together or separately, change the subsurface liability landscape, removing much of the risk and cost typically associated with "underground ignorance," the bad luck to find objects long abandoned from activities long forgotten on (under) land your client just purchased. The paradigm is shifting from "We'll deal with it when we hit it" to "Let's figure out what's down there before we get started." Those that work underground are starting to realize it's cheaper and more efficient to deal with it ahead of time.
Witten's technologies are just scratching the surface. Having focused almost exclusively on the utilities and transportation sectors since birth, it is just starting to dabble in other (more interesting) applications where seeing the unseen is also of great benefit such as oil and gas, archeology, forensics, environmental, military, etc. The sky … er … the earth is the limit.
About the Authors
John Krause, PSM is vice president of operations for Witten Technologies and has more than 35 years of land surveying experience, 21 as a licensed land surveyor. As a principal of the company, his responsibilities include executive management of the contracts and operations associated with Witten's land surveying and subsurface utility engineering (SUE) projects as well as its licensee program. For the last 13 years, Mr. Krause has devoted his career exclusively to SUE. He can be reached at j.krause@wittentech.com.
Andrew Lund is business development manager at Witten with over 20 years of technical marketing experience, the last 10 focused on the underground damage prevention and SUE industries. He is responsible for marketing, sales, promotions, outreach, media/public relations, and licensee support. He can be reached at a.lund@wittentech.com.
Feature: Surveying Goes Underground
John Krause and Andrew Lund
For as long as there have been surveyors and underground utilities, surveyors have been asked to make representations on maps about the lines. Without access to pipe inverts at manholes, they are understandably reluctant to do so. "How can you survey something you can't see?" "You expect me to certify or attest to conditions based on assumptions from records, surface features, and paint markings by others beyond my control?" Often, the surveyor accepts liability to get the project or puts disclaimers on the map the client won't like. Relying on one-call services to depict horizontal locations of buried utilities on maps equates to Russian roulette unless you have a deep understanding of locating equipment. Another problem: You never really know whose hands your maps will end up in, or if the person will read all the notes. Even when you win, litigation is stressful and costs time and money.
But this roulette game may be ending. Thanks to new technologies, it has become possible to survey the unseen underground, and this technology has fallen under the oversight and quality control of the professional surveyor. It's not entirely accurate to call these technologies new. They have, in fact, been around for a while. But not until recently did they assume a form suited to the underground challenges faced by engineers, surveyors, and contractors.
It actually goes back over 40 years … to a college dorm room at the University of Rochester. Not so much the room, but the roommates: Alan Witten and Tony Devaney. They weren't your typical college students; both were considered top pupils of Dr. Emil Wolf, who had just published the (still) seminal text in the field of optics, The Principles of Optics (Macmillan, 1964).
Twenty years later, (now Dr.) Devaney would patent a concept called geophysical diffraction tomography (GDT). Stated simply, GDT involves transmitting a signal through the earth (or water), bouncing it off objects contained therein, receiving the signal with an array of antennas, and processing the (now multiple) signals with complex algorithms. The signals return to each antenna in the array nanoseconds apart, with the slight time difference allowing for 3D triangulation and ultimately visualization of the objects the signal(s) bounced off of. Originally, GDT was applied in acoustic form (signal equals sound).
At the time, Devaney was working for the French petrochemical giant Schlumberger, so exploring for oil was a natural fit as GDT's first commercial use. It is still used for that purpose, albeit on a much grander scale. While Devaney was using GDT to find new oil reserves, Dr. Witten was doing more "fanciful" (read: interesting) things. From visualizing ancient underground cave villages in the Negev desert in Israel to detecting tunnels in the Korean demilitarized zone to imaging sunken galleons off the coast of Madagascar, Dr. Witten put GDT through its paces. Perhaps his most notable application of GDT was in the New Mexico desert in 1989, where he helped unearth Seismosaurus (the "Earth Shaker"), the largest dinosaur on record. "Sam," as he was later nicknamed, would become the logo of the company Witten would ultimately found.
Chance Encounter
This brings us closer to real time. It's 1992, and Dr. Witten is working near Jacksonville, Florida for Oak Ridge National Laboratories, trying to image submerged pipes. By sheer coincidence, he encountered Robert Green, a local utility contractor. As a second-generation contractor, Green was painfully familiar with the problems that arose from not knowing what's down there. He asked Dr. Witten what would prove a pivotal question: "How can we make this geophysical telescope (acoustic GDT) into a geophysical microscope?" When Witten replied, "GPR," proposing to use ground-penetrating radar as the signal, the concept of computer assisted radar tomography (CART) was born.
Soon thereafter, in 1994, the two men formed Witten Technologies in Boston, MA to commercialize GPR-driven GDT. It took the company the remainder of the century to do so, with CART, shortened to RT (radar tomography) for simplicity, debuting around 2001. Along the way, the company received assistance from the Electric Power Research Institute, the Gas Technology Institute, and Consolidated Edison. In fact, ConEd was Witten's first true client, and the first notable RT work was done in lower Manhattan. In a strange twist of fortune, the company scanned the streets around the World Trade Center just prior to 9/11 and then helped ConEd sort through the subsurface spaghetti left in the tragedy's wake.
Since then, the technology has been applied to over 20 million square feet in the United States and abroad.
Since GPR is RT's foundation, an understanding of RT requires some basic GPR knowledge. Featured numerous times in Professional Surveyor Magazine, a typical GPR system involves a single pair of antenna—transmitter and receiver—mounted in a pushcart or attached to a vehicle. The transmitter sends an electromagnetic pulse downward, which bounces off objects and features and returns to the receiver. The curves and ripples in the resulting image(s), once interpreted, reveal the 2D position of certain objects and features. While it has been used effectively in a variety of applications, the inherent subjective interpretation requirement lends it an air of "rocket science." RT has taken GPR from 2D to 3D, eliminating much of this interpretation requirement.
For ease of explanation, radar tomography can be broken down into three separate but interrelated components: hardware, process, and software.
Hardware:
An array (in both 200- and 400-MHz versions) consists of 17 ultra-wideband GPR antennae (9 transmitters and 8 receivers) and a control box that manages the firing of the antennae in a controlled, rapid sequence. The firing sequence can be either timed or triggered by a survey wheel mounted on the array. A multiple array with sufficient distance between the outermost antennas is key to creation of 3D data. The array is contained in a shielded, eight-inch-thick, pool-table-sized box, either front-mounted on a commercial mower chassis or pulled behind a vehicle. Mounted on the array is an adjustable prism pole with a 360-degree prism at the top. A robotic total station tracks the prism (ergo, the array and all the antennas contained therein) at all times in all three planes.
Process:
As the array passes over the ground at about two MPH, it is tracked by a constant laser connection between the total station and prism pole. In addition, the total station and prism pole are used to auto-collect numerous control points. In addition to providing the required degree of geospatial accuracy, these points are also used to stitch passes together to create seamless coverage over large areas. Thousands of multi- aspect (that is, the same spot from multiple angles) 2D GPR images are created for a given project or area. Using a combination of automated and manual software processes, this 2D data is later converted into a 3D data cube.
Software:
The image-processing algorithms act as a mathematical lens, which, much like the lenses in our own eyes, focus indistinguishable optical patterns into recognizable images. In the first phase, the software merges the radar and positioning data to focus the 2D radar echoes into 3D/motion imagery. In the second phase, additional software then analyzes the data cube to create plan-and-profile drawings of all detected lines and features in the standard CAD format(s) used in engineering design and construction.
Florida Shows Early Interest
Besides ConEd in New York, a few other organizations from Witten's home state of Florida took an early interest in the technology. Miami-Dade Water Sewer used RT extensively, ultimately issuing an RFP specifically for radar tomography services. The Florida Department of Transportation, always in search of cost-cutting measures for an ever-expanding slate of highway improvement projects, engaged in an exhaustive three-year pilot study. Sunshine State One Call of Florida, the state's call-before- you-dig center, participated in the study.
The lessons learned from the FDOT pilot study, performed across four different projects totaling roughly two million s/f², were many and varied.
At first, it was a lesson in communication. Witten consisted of scientists who knew they had a good thing but didn't know how to deliver it. FDOT really didn't know what to expect, and Witten didn't know what FDOT expected … kind of like two people who didn't know how to dance learning to dance together. Frustrations ran high on both sides, and the department was close to giving up. Witten hired John Krause, PSM, a 15-year veteran of subsurface utility engineering (SUE), and enlisted the aid of Craig A. Smith and Associates (CAS), a civil engineering, surveying, and SUE firm out of Fort Lauderdale.
Witten had always understood the importance of this data because it provides the user with accurate and contiguous x/ y/z's for the tops of all the lines and objects it "sees." FDOT realized this, too. The disconnect was that neither had any experience blending RT with existing survey, engineering, and SUE practices and processes, then presenting the data in formats familiar to engineers, surveyors, and contractors. In other words, the deliverable format did not meet industry standards and statutory mapping requirements, and neither party knew how to fix it.
With Krause and CAS came this knowledge, ultimately righting the FDOT ship. CAS would become Witten's first licensee. Further complicating the above issue was the fact that FDOT was introducing MicroStation Version 8 about the same time. When the coordinate richness (too many unique x, y, z coordinates) of the RT data crashed the system, CAS' and FDOT's CAD teams worked together to come up with a solution.
The study produced estimates of two-thirds less vacuum excavation and a 10-to-1 return on investment, and two overarching themes became apparent in the long run. First, RT was not the magic bullet some perceived it to be. (This was also an expectations-management lesson for Witten.) While it is a great tool that makes for a more effective toolbox, it doesn't replace any other tools in the box. Like GPR, it can't see everything under all conditions; certain very small lines (i.e. fiber optic) are hard to detect, and certain soil conditions (i.e. high conductivity) obscure the signals. Second, it's only applicable for specific kinds of projects—large, urban ones with lots of underground utilities in the way—so project selection is crucial. Ultimately, FDOT would include RT in its roadway design "bible," the 2007 Plans and Preparations Manual.
Another System Comes Along
Along the way, Witten's scientists recognized some of RT's shortcomings, including limited penetration depth and dependence on soil condition, and developed a "sister" system. While it is based on similar arrayed sensing principles, the Arrayed Inductive Receiver (AIR) system is based on conventional electromagnetic (EM) induction locating principles, where an EM sensor detects the position of the utility lines by detecting the electromagnetic fields created by currents imposed on those lines. Conventional EM-based locating consists of two basic components, a current-inducing mechanism to energize a given utility line and a means of interpreting the behavior of that current with a single EM receiver on the surface to provide horizontal location data for that line. Much like RT is an extension of GPR, the AIR system is an extension of EM.
The AIR system consists of several components. At the heart of it is the array itself, which consists of 16 specially designed triaxial broadband electromagnetic sensors. The broadband sensors allow the recording of many different frequencies simultaneously, allowing the operator to use multiple transmitters for detection of multiple utilities. Equally important is an electrical current source, either direct or indirect. The system employs off-the-shelf EM transmitters for direct current application but uses a specially designed transmitter ball for indirect application.
To capture the information coming from the sensors, a 48- channel (6 receivers x 3 channels and x, y, and z for each) data acquisition system is employed. For positioning, the same total station used by RT is used. Most of the components are housed in the AIR trailer, connected to a laptop in the tow vehicle that records the sensor data. And of course, there's the litany of back-end processing components … data processing, visualization, interpretation, and CAD/GIS mapping software.
In a multi-step software process, the data recorded by the sensors is pre-processed, filtered, and merged with the positioning data to create color imagery that depicts the electromagnetic fields. By modeling the resulting data, precise positions for detected utilities are derived. As with the RT system, the final deliverables of the AIR system include both imagery and underground CAD maps of the located pipes.
Recognizing the ability of both systems to solve the problems posed to the transportation industry and other stakeholders (including the general public) by lack of accurate subsurface utility maps, the U.S. DOT's Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration selected Witten Technologies to create a merged-array system. The project, informally known as the Dual Array Project, had the title Digital Mapping of Buried Pipelines with a Dual Array System. The stated goal: "develop a non-invasive system for detecting, mapping, and inspecting ferrous and plastic pipelines in place using technology that combines and interprets measurements from ground penetrating radar and electromagnetic induction sensors." The purpose of this research was to demonstrate that the RT and AIR systems would provide complementary information that could be merged to create better and more accurate utility maps for both conductive and non-conductive facilities over large areas.
The capabilities of these two systems, together or separately, change the subsurface liability landscape, removing much of the risk and cost typically associated with "underground ignorance," the bad luck to find objects long abandoned from activities long forgotten on (under) land your client just purchased. The paradigm is shifting from "We'll deal with it when we hit it" to "Let's figure out what's down there before we get started." Those that work underground are starting to realize it's cheaper and more efficient to deal with it ahead of time.
Witten's technologies are just scratching the surface. Having focused almost exclusively on the utilities and transportation sectors since birth, it is just starting to dabble in other (more interesting) applications where seeing the unseen is also of great benefit such as oil and gas, archeology, forensics, environmental, military, etc. The sky … er … the earth is the limit.
About the Authors
John Krause, PSM is vice president of operations for Witten Technologies and has more than 35 years of land surveying experience, 21 as a licensed land surveyor. As a principal of the company, his responsibilities include executive management of the contracts and operations associated with Witten's land surveying and subsurface utility engineering (SUE) projects as well as its licensee program. For the last 13 years, Mr. Krause has devoted his career exclusively to SUE. He can be reached at j.krause@wittentech.com.
Andrew Lund is business development manager at Witten with over 20 years of technical marketing experience, the last 10 focused on the underground damage prevention and SUE industries. He is responsible for marketing, sales, promotions, outreach, media/public relations, and licensee support. He can be reached at a.lund@wittentech.com.
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